Gravity does not have a cause...
It has a Creator.
Mitchell Raemsch
Note: I will be writing a series of articles about the cause of gravity in my facebook timeline, to satisfy my loyal school friends who seem interested. This is the first of such articles. I will also be posting them to sci.physics.has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same formula with the difference
The cause of gravity – 1
Brief:
The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by experiment. Recently the author
As such, there should be, among reasonable people, no quarrel with the new electrostatic representation of gravity, as on the surface it is a re-statement of the earlier statement. The curious may well be satisfied that an electrostatic representationof gravity may somehow explain what is so far unexplained and not understood about the manifestations of Nature: such as capillary action in plants and narrow tubes where fluid rises up defying gravity and the law of conservation of energy; and how
But, as presented – so far - without supporting logic as to its derivation, the new formula seems to be a trivial form of the existing formula, imparting no new knowledge. It may also seem preposterous as uncharged masses, by definition, do not emitany measurable electric field. Finally, the electrostatic forces are estimated to be as per physics literature to be some 10^39 times stronger than the gravitational force. For all these reasons, the gravitational force has been held to be something
It is my purpose, in the following articles, to show that despite the above sound objections arising from the existing scientific viewpoints, indeed the gravitational force is a manifestation of electrostatic force.the fundamentals of electrostatics, as simply as possible. Furthermore, I will as my target audience have my old school friends, whose loyalty and faith in my abilities I most deeply cherish. My sole request to them – and all my other friends in
Instead of the just the physics community, I will make my appeal primarily to the intelligent lay public, who are innocent of whatever passes for modern physics. For that purpose, prior to making my new points, I will try to impart a crash course in
Cheers,body in free space surrounded by nothing. Let us have this in mind when we discuss how he managed to discover gravity, from the general level of the scientific thinking in his time
Arindam Banerjee, 21/4/2020
The cause of gravity – 2
Historical background:
Sir Isaac Newton, in his great work known as the “Principia”, primarily stressed upon two factors; the role of geometry in modelling reality, and the use of mathematics to make correct and accurate predictions in idealised environments, like say a
.moved in crystal spheres that too revolved around the fixed Earth. The Christian Church devoutly followed the Aristotleian model, for it was perfectly, obviously, correct with the stars being proof of Heaven and the need to be religious and dutiful to
The scientific thinking of his time was Aristotleian. For many hundreds of years, it was believed that the Sun went around the Earth – exactly as we can all see for ourselves. The stars were the openings to Heaven, sending down heavenly light. They
So the ancients did their science in their own way, basically through empirical methods as they lacked the theory and the resulting mathematical modeling. To the extent they were practical, following geometry, they got good results. As an example, letus see how the Greeks calculated the distance to the Moon. They used parallax. This means that when one points to an object at one point, there is a certain angle with respect to a common plane. From another point on the same plane, there is a different
Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC) used the parallax method to get the distance to the Moon with reasonable accuracy. The ancients may not have known about force and gravity the way we do, but they did know about parallax, geometry - and Hipparachushimself is also credited with inventing trigonometry! Incidentally, the parallax method is still used to this day to find the distance of stars and galaxies from our planet.
Thus Isaac Newton was heir to the great Greek scientific traditions. He had been further influenced by Copernicus and Galileo. About these two, now: let us also get in touch with dates, we are doing some history after all!enough. What he found was that the angular positions of heavenly bodies (stars, planets) changed the most every six months, constantly. The same old parallax system is at work, this time instead of the space between two eyes from our earlier example,
Copernicus (1473-1543) is credited with discovering (in the West that is) the heliocentric system, that is, the Sun is fixed and the planets revolve around it. He did it without a telescope, just his naked eye with some pointing tools. And that was
Back to Isaac Newton (1642 – 1737). It should be obvious from the mood of his time (as presented above) that the geocentric model was absolutely dominant – all the churches expounded it, the universities taught it, all rich and important peoplebelieved it utterly. Exactly as they believe in special and general relativity, quantum theory, big bang, expanding universe, black holes, quarks, bosons, string theories, neutrinos, photons, fusion, e=mcc, spacetime, nothing can go faster than light,
It is said that in 1666 (that is, when Newton was 24 and Galileo had been forced to recant his views only 33 years ago) that the famous apple fell on Newton’s head, or on the ground before him. Why did it fall to the ground? A simple question, but noone had asked it before. Why was it moving faster and faster (accelerating) as it fell? Newton thought that there had to be an attractive force between the mass of the Earth and the apple, which caused it to fall. It was moving faster and faster because
Newton theorized that the attractive force was proportional to the multiplicative product of the two masses attracting each other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. This directly leads to the present formula, F=GmM/r^2. However let us not forget that the gravitational constant G was not known until Cavendish measured it in 1797-98, some 131 years after Newton had his famous insight, which had so far eluded everyone else.
If masses did attract one another, just as the Earth attracts the falling apple, then why does not the Earth fall into the Sun, like the apple falling to the ground? Either gravity operated only on Earth (thus the Earth and the Sun did not attract eachother) or the sun being very small (like say Apollo’s chariot) revolved around the Earth; or - and this was supported by astronomical findings supporting Copernican model of the rotating Earth revolving around the Sun - the Earth actually moved around
It was obvious that the Sun was far bigger than the Earth, from the phenomena of eclipses and the knowledge of the Moon’s dimensions. It is still not known 100% that gravitation works for heavenly system, the way it does for the apple-Earth system,thus the universal theory of gravitation remains a theory, although one of the most powerful theories known, like the atomic theory. It is still a theory, for it cannot explain why ionised masses escape from the Sun’s extraordinary gravitational pull.
The Earth then has to move tangentially, always, for ever, to escape falling into the Sun. It certainly would do so if a giant hand stopped its motion! What Newton with his geometry and maths explained, clearly, was that the Earth is in fact always “falling into” the Sun, but because of its tangential velocity, “falling out” by more or less the same amount. (The” more or less” accounts for the elliptic orbit, that is, not purely circular, as Kepler (1571-1639) had worked out before Newton.)
The earlier point is worth pondering about, for a few minutes. It explains the motion of all satellites. The tangential motion allows the satellites to not fall back to the Earth, and keep constantly revolving unless the tangential speed is reduced bydrag of some kind, including rocketry.
Another point about gravity – the gravitational force simply depends upon the existence of mass. It never changes for that mass. It is constant, always there. This mass always attracts, thus its force never changes, it is exerted all around in allangles. Always, always…. Such is the fundamental design of the Universe. Can we probe a bit deeper into its cause, now? I think some more groundwork is necessary.
22/04/2020when a force moves over a distance. There is a vast difference between force and energy – as I see it, force is for the physicists to better understand the workings of the Universe; and energy is for the businessmen to make money. So it is, that as far
The cause of gravity – 3
The conception of force
Force is the central issue in physics – or at least, it should be the central issue in physics. It is from force that all things move, or stay put. Force moved over distance is work, and work has the same units as energy. Energy, then, is expended
The difference between force and energy is tricky. It is easy to confuse one for the other, and most people untrained in physics may do so. Force must have direction – it is thus called a vector. Because forces have direction, two separate forcesoperating in the same direction add up to one double-force. In opposite directions, they cancel out to zero. But energy has no direction. It is thus called a scalar quantity. Energy is usually defined as the capacity of a body to do work. It is further
Is force equally slippery?force there is an active, incorporeal life; and I call it invisible because the body in which it is created does not increase in weight or in size; and of brief duration because it desires perpetually to subdue its cause, and when this is subdued it
As far as I can see, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his Notes, made the first-ever proper description of force with the following statements:
“Force I define as a spiritual power, incorporeal and invisible, which with brief life is produced in those bodies which as the result of accidental violence are brought out of their natural state and condition. I have said spiritual because in this
Such a definition of force is slippery indeed! From da Vinci’s definition, secularized, force is the “result of accidental violence” brought out “natural state and condition”. Thus it is random and violent. It is “brief in duration”,meaning it is transient, certainly nothing permanent. A perpetual desire to “subdue its cause” means that it is revolutionary. When successful in that “it kills itself” so is suicidal. This appears as quite a statement of the violent political
It will not be difficult to see how much da Vinci’s conception of force - which in his day had to be purely mechanical - influencing later scientists like Galileo, led to the formulation of the well-known Newtonian laws of motion. The phrase “natural state and condition” is known as inertia, formulated in the first law of motion. “Result of accidental violence” refers to acceleration, and is formulated in the second law of motion. The statement “when this is subdued it kills itself”,
From the above discussion we find that the conception of mechanical force is not just slippery; it is random, violent, transient and suicidal. Nothing constant about force! And yet, with such conception of force, formed from the greatest minds in theWest, all the wonderful works in engineering have been done, from locomotives to jet engine airplanes; from muskets to missiles; small cars to huge ships! As force is slippery, so energy too is slippery. Energy mutates from one form to another. Just like
The above conception of force, so widely accepted because it was correct, makes Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity all the more remarkable. For gravity is not slippery, nor random, nor violent, transient and suicidal. It is the very opposite. It isconstant, spreading out in all directions, relatively very gentle, and permanent. Being all that, it is gravity which holds us all together on this planet; and it is gravity that makes the entire universe a permanent moving system composed of unlimited
A few more points: the random nature of mechanical force had led Leonardo da Vinci to conclude that a device that would perennially give out energy (a perpetual motion machine) was impossible. Even when gravity was discovered as a constant force, thiswas found to be true. This inability to construct a perpetual motion machine was a factor in the definition of the law of conservation of energy, that energy could neither be created nor destroyed. Certainly this law is much appreciated by the fossil
Researching Leonardo da Vinci’s comment on the nature of force, this time with a more modern mindset, we note the words “I have said spiritual because in this force there is an active, incorporeal life”. Now concentrate on the words “in thisforce” and “life”. Da Vinci is not talking of force as an expression of the inanimate – for him all forces relate to life and spring from some unknown higher purpose, thus blurring the line between physics and metaphysics.
“Life force” thus is essentially internal. It comes from within, but is related to without. Going by da Vinci’s perception, it is inherently random and self-destructing. But what if it can be made to act otherwise, with the purpose of steadymovement in one direction? What if instead of being pushed around by external forces, bodies can push themselves with internal “life force”? We all know that this is a dream monetized by science fiction. Can this fiction become fact? Can we overcome
For over twenty years, I have wrestled with the above issues. My work has been presented online. In 2000 I published in my “adda” website my book “To the Stars!”. It attracted minimal interest, till in 2003 an article by myself was published inthe Science Section of Outlook Magazine, in India. I got fiercely hostile reactions to my article, which surprised me before I got disgusted with the low quality of scientific temper, from low personal attacks. For example, one Garg, a junior scientist
The link for that article is at https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/newt-is-old-hat/220728the theories of relativity, publish their weird notions, with amazing smoke screens of mathematical gibberish to confuse the most intelligent lay persons, in select journals and conferences, to maintain their high prestige. Their efforts are very
I now believe, that the editors thought that I was attacking Newton with my new ideas, and that was the reason for its publication!
Arindam Banerjee
25 April 2020
The cause of gravity – 4
Measuring fundamental constants (G) and the meaning of research
(start rant)
Today the entire field of physics is thoroughly institutionalised, with standardised thinking dedicated to perpetuating the established orthodoxies, like any religion. These high priests – in the field of what is called “modern physics” involving
So much is this notion prevalent, that only the expenditure of millions or billions of dollars involving vast projects such as making black holes, or fusion energy, is considered solely necessary to finding something new and wonderful – which,however hardly ever happens. Anything revolutionary in physics, involving low budgets and lone endeavour is automatically discarded as cranky or plain wrong if it goes against the grain of the orthodoxies.
(end rant)example, as the discoverer of the force of gravity. But his discovery in 1666 was far from complete. He could only indicate that the gravitational force between two masses was proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to
The greatest advances in physics did not require huge investments in money and manpower. What was needed was insight, dedication, patience, skill, tenacity… of the talented amateur, working with minimal help. Sir Isaac Newton is the best known
It was only in 1798 (that is 135 years after Newton’s discovery) that the Gravitational Constant was found from measurement, by Henry Cavendish. The experiment was painstakingly done by Cavendish, but the apparatus itself was simple. A recent attemptto recreate a model of the original apparatus is shown in the Youtube video film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1lCjq4IzJw
Cavendish’s experiment was conducted in a large sealed room, to prevent air currents. Two lead balls, spaced widely apart were joined by a thin light rod. A fine string suspended these two balls from their centre of mass, from the ceiling. Two heavylead balls were placed near the suspended balls, such that they could each attract the suspended ball in the same direction so as to produce the maximum twisting effect (torque) upon the string. How much the string would twist, could be found out by the
So much (from above) I have got from the literature, and the rest is my own construction, relating to the necessary calibration and measurement. The gravitational force is very small. And yet, it can be measured correctly with proper application. Themain issue is calibration, for any measurement.
What we have to know is how much the thread twists for a certain torque (twisting action). Let us say that the length of the suspended rod with its attached balls is ten meters. Torque is equal to the force F multiplied by the distance r to the pointof twist. Or T=F*r. With equal force from the other end it is T=F*r + F*r = 2Fr or F.d. The torque motion will be resisted by the material in the string – it cannot twist indefinitely - after a certain angle (depending upon the quality) the string will
The issue of calibration now comes in. Let us see how it can be done. From about 10 cm from the centre of the suspending string, tie a fine thread to the rod on both sides. Slide it over a pulley to a suspended mass of say 1 gram, on both sides. Acontinuous torque now acts on the suspended string. It will twist by a certain angle, then stop twisting. Measure that angle. Now make more experiments with increasing or decreasing weights, and changing the distances involved, to get many values of
The rest of the experiment is simple. Just get the very heavy balls of lead near to the suspended balls, at right angles and as near as possible without touching. The small balls will be attracted by this extra mass near them, and the torque will becreated till the suspended string twists by an angle theta. Knowing k and theta, the torque T is known. Knowing the torque T and the distance d, the gravitational force F between the suspended ball of mass m and the heavy ball of mass M is known. Various
G = F*r*r/(m*M)balls in an experiment are attracted with the constant G, but all bodies in the universe) it falls with a force F which by Newton’s second law is equal to m.g
With this formula, Cavendish could work out the mass of the Earth, knowing g, the acceleration due to gravity. Every apple of mass m falls to the Earth with mass M, by the law of universal gravitation (it is assumed now that as per Newton not just lead
The above equation can be written as M=F*r*r/(G.m) With F=mg, it is M=r*r*g/Gthe Earth is 5.96 *10^24 Kg. How nice! Knowing the mass of the Earth we can also find the mass of the Sun, Moon and so on. In the practical sense, we can know how much force is exerted by the Earth on distant objects like satellites or space vehicles.
For the fun of it, let us put in the values to get the mass of the Earth! r is the Earth’s radius which is 6371 Km or 6371000 m. g on the surface is 9.8 m/sec/sec. G is found to be 6.674*10^-11 in MKS units. The calculator result is that the mass of
**** NEW ****established search in a new way each time, with a slightly different angle, with the knowledge of relevant new knowledge and finally with special insight (from the Divine, in my case and with all my heroes in science: Plato, da Vinci, Newton, Maxwell,
So far we have been dealing with the known. Research to most means looking things up, but as a professional researcher I do not call that research; I call that search. Research (re-search or search again and again and again…) means looking at an
Applying that notion of research to the notion of the gravitational constant G, what do we find?to gravitational forces, so the ion streaming from the Sun is a mystery.
**** INSIGHT ****
We find that none of the masses involved in the experiment were charged with electricity.
*****************
Which amounts to, the law of universal gravitation may or may not apply to charged masses. This explains why ions stream out of the Sun, despite the Sun’s huge gravitational force. However up till now, we had assumed that charged masses were subject
But what is charge? Sir Isaac Newton had no idea about charge, no clue about electricity. Cavendish may have had some idea, for his apparatus was a large torsion balance, used to measure electrostatic forces. We will go into the details ofelectrostatics in the next instalment. That will be the prelude to expressing the equation of universal gravitation in electrostatic terms.
Arindam Banerjeeassumption. It is the job of the researcher, that is, one who searches old stuff with new eyes, to point this out. And that is what I have done. And will be doing, in later instalments.
29 April 2020
Further comments in my facebook post: 29 April 2020
understand this, that the Gravitational Constant was measured only with masses with no charge in them. Both were uncharged. This is a small but vital point. It shows that assuming that the law of universal gravitation is valid for charged masses is an
With the measurement of the slightest twist of a string, one may thus weigh the Earth, Sun, Moon and the planets! Direct the course of spaceships! Such is the power of the correct theory. Or rather, the more correct theory. Science is alwaysprovisional, that is, in for change.
Thus I wonder, how much mad those around the likes of da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Franklin, Faraday thought them to be! They would not have had the faintest clue of what was going on. They would stoutly believe in established notionsexpounded from some pulpit or altar. Things have not changed, have they!?
The cause of gravity – 5experiment. Recently the author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same
The fundamentals of electrostatic attraction leading to the structure of the atom
To recapitulate the thesis: “The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by
We have dealt with the development of gravitational force at some length, in the earlier instalments. To validate the thesis that there is no difference between electrostatic force and gravitational force, let us see how the electrostatic force wasdeveloped to the point where it could be seen as being deeply involved in the basic elements of matter, that is, atoms.
piątek, 3 lutego 2023 o 14:13:00 UTC+1 Arindam Banerjee napisał(a):author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same formula with the
Note: I will be writing a series of articles about the cause of gravity in my facebook timeline, to satisfy my loyal school friends who seem interested. This is the first of such articles. I will also be posting them to sci.physics.
The cause of gravity – 1
Brief:
The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by experiment. Recently the
representation of gravity may somehow explain what is so far unexplained and not understood about the manifestations of Nature: such as capillary action in plants and narrow tubes where fluid rises up defying gravity and the law of conservation of energy;As such, there should be, among reasonable people, no quarrel with the new electrostatic representation of gravity, as on the surface it is a re-statement of the earlier statement. The curious may well be satisfied that an electrostatic
emit any measurable electric field. Finally, the electrostatic forces are estimated to be as per physics literature to be some 10^39 times stronger than the gravitational force. For all these reasons, the gravitational force has been held to be somethingBut, as presented – so far - without supporting logic as to its derivation, the new formula seems to be a trivial form of the existing formula, imparting no new knowledge. It may also seem preposterous as uncharged masses, by definition, do not
the fundamentals of electrostatics, as simply as possible. Furthermore, I will as my target audience have my old school friends, whose loyalty and faith in my abilities I most deeply cherish. My sole request to them – and all my other friends inIt is my purpose, in the following articles, to show that despite the above sound objections arising from the existing scientific viewpoints, indeed the gravitational force is a manifestation of electrostatic force.
Instead of the just the physics community, I will make my appeal primarily to the intelligent lay public, who are innocent of whatever passes for modern physics. For that purpose, prior to making my new points, I will try to impart a crash course in
a body in free space surrounded by nothing. Let us have this in mind when we discuss how he managed to discover gravity, from the general level of the scientific thinking in his timeCheers,
Arindam Banerjee, 21/4/2020
The cause of gravity – 2
Historical background:
Sir Isaac Newton, in his great work known as the “Principia”, primarily stressed upon two factors; the role of geometry in modelling reality, and the use of mathematics to make correct and accurate predictions in idealised environments, like say
moved in crystal spheres that too revolved around the fixed Earth. The Christian Church devoutly followed the Aristotleian model, for it was perfectly, obviously, correct with the stars being proof of Heaven and the need to be religious and dutiful to.
The scientific thinking of his time was Aristotleian. For many hundreds of years, it was believed that the Sun went around the Earth – exactly as we can all see for ourselves. The stars were the openings to Heaven, sending down heavenly light. They
let us see how the Greeks calculated the distance to the Moon. They used parallax. This means that when one points to an object at one point, there is a certain angle with respect to a common plane. From another point on the same plane, there is aSo the ancients did their science in their own way, basically through empirical methods as they lacked the theory and the resulting mathematical modeling. To the extent they were practical, following geometry, they got good results. As an example,
himself is also credited with inventing trigonometry! Incidentally, the parallax method is still used to this day to find the distance of stars and galaxies from our planet.Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC) used the parallax method to get the distance to the Moon with reasonable accuracy. The ancients may not have known about force and gravity the way we do, but they did know about parallax, geometry - and Hipparachus
enough. What he found was that the angular positions of heavenly bodies (stars, planets) changed the most every six months, constantly. The same old parallax system is at work, this time instead of the space between two eyes from our earlier example,Thus Isaac Newton was heir to the great Greek scientific traditions. He had been further influenced by Copernicus and Galileo. About these two, now: let us also get in touch with dates, we are doing some history after all!
Copernicus (1473-1543) is credited with discovering (in the West that is) the heliocentric system, that is, the Sun is fixed and the planets revolve around it. He did it without a telescope, just his naked eye with some pointing tools. And that was
believed it utterly. Exactly as they believe in special and general relativity, quantum theory, big bang, expanding universe, black holes, quarks, bosons, string theories, neutrinos, photons, fusion, e=mcc, spacetime, nothing can go faster than light,Back to Isaac Newton (1642 – 1737). It should be obvious from the mood of his time (as presented above) that the geocentric model was absolutely dominant – all the churches expounded it, the universities taught it, all rich and important people
no one had asked it before. Why was it moving faster and faster (accelerating) as it fell? Newton thought that there had to be an attractive force between the mass of the Earth and the apple, which caused it to fall. It was moving faster and fasterIt is said that in 1666 (that is, when Newton was 24 and Galileo had been forced to recant his views only 33 years ago) that the famous apple fell on Newton’s head, or on the ground before him. Why did it fall to the ground? A simple question, but
GmM/r^2. However let us not forget that the gravitational constant G was not known until Cavendish measured it in 1797-98, some 131 years after Newton had his famous insight, which had so far eluded everyone else.Newton theorized that the attractive force was proportional to the multiplicative product of the two masses attracting each other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. This directly leads to the present formula, F=
each other) or the sun being very small (like say Apollo’s chariot) revolved around the Earth; or - and this was supported by astronomical findings supporting Copernican model of the rotating Earth revolving around the Sun - the Earth actually movedIf masses did attract one another, just as the Earth attracts the falling apple, then why does not the Earth fall into the Sun, like the apple falling to the ground? Either gravity operated only on Earth (thus the Earth and the Sun did not attract
thus the universal theory of gravitation remains a theory, although one of the most powerful theories known, like the atomic theory. It is still a theory, for it cannot explain why ionised masses escape from the Sun’s extraordinary gravitational pull.It was obvious that the Sun was far bigger than the Earth, from the phenomena of eclipses and the knowledge of the Moon’s dimensions. It is still not known 100% that gravitation works for heavenly system, the way it does for the apple-Earth system,
falling into” the Sun, but because of its tangential velocity, “falling out” by more or less the same amount. (The” more or less” accounts for the elliptic orbit, that is, not purely circular, as Kepler (1571-1639) had worked out before Newton.The Earth then has to move tangentially, always, for ever, to escape falling into the Sun. It certainly would do so if a giant hand stopped its motion! What Newton with his geometry and maths explained, clearly, was that the Earth is in fact always
by drag of some kind, including rocketry.The earlier point is worth pondering about, for a few minutes. It explains the motion of all satellites. The tangential motion allows the satellites to not fall back to the Earth, and keep constantly revolving unless the tangential speed is reduced
angles. Always, always…. Such is the fundamental design of the Universe. Can we probe a bit deeper into its cause, now? I think some more groundwork is necessary.Another point about gravity – the gravitational force simply depends upon the existence of mass. It never changes for that mass. It is constant, always there. This mass always attracts, thus its force never changes, it is exerted all around in all
when a force moves over a distance. There is a vast difference between force and energy – as I see it, force is for the physicists to better understand the workings of the Universe; and energy is for the businessmen to make money. So it is, that as far22/04/2020
The cause of gravity – 3
The conception of force
Force is the central issue in physics – or at least, it should be the central issue in physics. It is from force that all things move, or stay put. Force moved over distance is work, and work has the same units as energy. Energy, then, is expended
operating in the same direction add up to one double-force. In opposite directions, they cancel out to zero. But energy has no direction. It is thus called a scalar quantity. Energy is usually defined as the capacity of a body to do work. It is furtherThe difference between force and energy is tricky. It is easy to confuse one for the other, and most people untrained in physics may do so. Force must have direction – it is thus called a vector. Because forces have direction, two separate forces
this force there is an active, incorporeal life; and I call it invisible because the body in which it is created does not increase in weight or in size; and of brief duration because it desires perpetually to subdue its cause, and when this is subdued itIs force equally slippery?
As far as I can see, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his Notes, made the first-ever proper description of force with the following statements:
“Force I define as a spiritual power, incorporeal and invisible, which with brief life is produced in those bodies which as the result of accidental violence are brought out of their natural state and condition. I have said spiritual because in
meaning it is transient, certainly nothing permanent. A perpetual desire to “subdue its cause” means that it is revolutionary. When successful in that “it kills itself” so is suicidal. This appears as quite a statement of the violent politicalSuch a definition of force is slippery indeed! From da Vinci’s definition, secularized, force is the “result of accidental violence” brought out “natural state and condition”. Thus it is random and violent. It is “brief in duration”,
natural state and condition” is known as inertia, formulated in the first law of motion. “Result of accidental violence” refers to acceleration, and is formulated in the second law of motion. The statement “when this is subdued it kills itself”,It will not be difficult to see how much da Vinci’s conception of force - which in his day had to be purely mechanical - influencing later scientists like Galileo, led to the formulation of the well-known Newtonian laws of motion. The phrase “
West, all the wonderful works in engineering have been done, from locomotives to jet engine airplanes; from muskets to missiles; small cars to huge ships! As force is slippery, so energy too is slippery. Energy mutates from one form to another. Just likeFrom the above discussion we find that the conception of mechanical force is not just slippery; it is random, violent, transient and suicidal. Nothing constant about force! And yet, with such conception of force, formed from the greatest minds in the
is constant, spreading out in all directions, relatively very gentle, and permanent. Being all that, it is gravity which holds us all together on this planet; and it is gravity that makes the entire universe a permanent moving system composed ofThe above conception of force, so widely accepted because it was correct, makes Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity all the more remarkable. For gravity is not slippery, nor random, nor violent, transient and suicidal. It is the very opposite. It
this was found to be true. This inability to construct a perpetual motion machine was a factor in the definition of the law of conservation of energy, that energy could neither be created nor destroyed. Certainly this law is much appreciated by theA few more points: the random nature of mechanical force had led Leonardo da Vinci to conclude that a device that would perennially give out energy (a perpetual motion machine) was impossible. Even when gravity was discovered as a constant force,
force” and “life”. Da Vinci is not talking of force as an expression of the inanimate – for him all forces relate to life and spring from some unknown higher purpose, thus blurring the line between physics and metaphysics.Researching Leonardo da Vinci’s comment on the nature of force, this time with a more modern mindset, we note the words “I have said spiritual because in this force there is an active, incorporeal life”. Now concentrate on the words “in this
movement in one direction? What if instead of being pushed around by external forces, bodies can push themselves with internal “life force”? We all know that this is a dream monetized by science fiction. Can this fiction become fact? Can we overcome“Life force” thus is essentially internal. It comes from within, but is related to without. Going by da Vinci’s perception, it is inherently random and self-destructing. But what if it can be made to act otherwise, with the purpose of steady
in the Science Section of Outlook Magazine, in India. I got fiercely hostile reactions to my article, which surprised me before I got disgusted with the low quality of scientific temper, from low personal attacks. For example, one Garg, a juniorFor over twenty years, I have wrestled with the above issues. My work has been presented online. In 2000 I published in my “adda” website my book “To the Stars!”. It attracted minimal interest, till in 2003 an article by myself was published
involving the theories of relativity, publish their weird notions, with amazing smoke screens of mathematical gibberish to confuse the most intelligent lay persons, in select journals and conferences, to maintain their high prestige. Their efforts areThe link for that article is at https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/newt-is-old-hat/220728
I now believe, that the editors thought that I was attacking Newton with my new ideas, and that was the reason for its publication!
Arindam Banerjee
25 April 2020
The cause of gravity – 4
Measuring fundamental constants (G) and the meaning of research
(start rant)
Today the entire field of physics is thoroughly institutionalised, with standardised thinking dedicated to perpetuating the established orthodoxies, like any religion. These high priests – in the field of what is called “modern physics”
however hardly ever happens. Anything revolutionary in physics, involving low budgets and lone endeavour is automatically discarded as cranky or plain wrong if it goes against the grain of the orthodoxies.So much is this notion prevalent, that only the expenditure of millions or billions of dollars involving vast projects such as making black holes, or fusion energy, is considered solely necessary to finding something new and wonderful – which,
example, as the discoverer of the force of gravity. But his discovery in 1666 was far from complete. He could only indicate that the gravitational force between two masses was proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to(end rant)
The greatest advances in physics did not require huge investments in money and manpower. What was needed was insight, dedication, patience, skill, tenacity… of the talented amateur, working with minimal help. Sir Isaac Newton is the best known
attempt to recreate a model of the original apparatus is shown in the Youtube video film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1lCjq4IzJwIt was only in 1798 (that is 135 years after Newton’s discovery) that the Gravitational Constant was found from measurement, by Henry Cavendish. The experiment was painstakingly done by Cavendish, but the apparatus itself was simple. A recent
heavy lead balls were placed near the suspended balls, such that they could each attract the suspended ball in the same direction so as to produce the maximum twisting effect (torque) upon the string. How much the string would twist, could be found outCavendish’s experiment was conducted in a large sealed room, to prevent air currents. Two lead balls, spaced widely apart were joined by a thin light rod. A fine string suspended these two balls from their centre of mass, from the ceiling. Two
main issue is calibration, for any measurement.So much (from above) I have got from the literature, and the rest is my own construction, relating to the necessary calibration and measurement. The gravitational force is very small. And yet, it can be measured correctly with proper application. The
of twist. Or T=F*r. With equal force from the other end it is T=F*r + F*r = 2Fr or F.d. The torque motion will be resisted by the material in the string – it cannot twist indefinitely - after a certain angle (depending upon the quality) the string willWhat we have to know is how much the thread twists for a certain torque (twisting action). Let us say that the length of the suspended rod with its attached balls is ten meters. Torque is equal to the force F multiplied by the distance r to the point
continuous torque now acts on the suspended string. It will twist by a certain angle, then stop twisting. Measure that angle. Now make more experiments with increasing or decreasing weights, and changing the distances involved, to get many values ofThe issue of calibration now comes in. Let us see how it can be done. From about 10 cm from the centre of the suspending string, tie a fine thread to the rod on both sides. Slide it over a pulley to a suspended mass of say 1 gram, on both sides. A
created till the suspended string twists by an angle theta. Knowing k and theta, the torque T is known. Knowing the torque T and the distance d, the gravitational force F between the suspended ball of mass m and the heavy ball of mass M is known. VariousThe rest of the experiment is simple. Just get the very heavy balls of lead near to the suspended balls, at right angles and as near as possible without touching. The small balls will be attracted by this extra mass near them, and the torque will be
lead balls in an experiment are attracted with the constant G, but all bodies in the universe) it falls with a force F which by Newton’s second law is equal to m.gG = F*r*r/(m*M)
With this formula, Cavendish could work out the mass of the Earth, knowing g, the acceleration due to gravity. Every apple of mass m falls to the Earth with mass M, by the law of universal gravitation (it is assumed now that as per Newton not just
of the Earth is 5.96 *10^24 Kg. How nice! Knowing the mass of the Earth we can also find the mass of the Sun, Moon and so on. In the practical sense, we can know how much force is exerted by the Earth on distant objects like satellites or space vehicles.The above equation can be written as M=F*r*r/(G.m) With F=mg, it is M=r*r*g/G
For the fun of it, let us put in the values to get the mass of the Earth! r is the Earth’s radius which is 6371 Km or 6371000 m. g on the surface is 9.8 m/sec/sec. G is found to be 6.674*10^-11 in MKS units. The calculator result is that the mass
established search in a new way each time, with a slightly different angle, with the knowledge of relevant new knowledge and finally with special insight (from the Divine, in my case and with all my heroes in science: Plato, da Vinci, Newton, Maxwell,**** NEW ****
So far we have been dealing with the known. Research to most means looking things up, but as a professional researcher I do not call that research; I call that search. Research (re-search or search again and again and again…) means looking at an
subject to gravitational forces, so the ion streaming from the Sun is a mystery.Applying that notion of research to the notion of the gravitational constant G, what do we find?
**** INSIGHT ****
We find that none of the masses involved in the experiment were charged with electricity.
*****************
Which amounts to, the law of universal gravitation may or may not apply to charged masses. This explains why ions stream out of the Sun, despite the Sun’s huge gravitational force. However up till now, we had assumed that charged masses were
electrostatics in the next instalment. That will be the prelude to expressing the equation of universal gravitation in electrostatic terms.But what is charge? Sir Isaac Newton had no idea about charge, no clue about electricity. Cavendish may have had some idea, for his apparatus was a large torsion balance, used to measure electrostatic forces. We will go into the details of
an assumption. It is the job of the researcher, that is, one who searches old stuff with new eyes, to point this out. And that is what I have done. And will be doing, in later instalments.Arindam Banerjee
29 April 2020
Further comments in my facebook post: 29 April 2020
understand this, that the Gravitational Constant was measured only with masses with no charge in them. Both were uncharged. This is a small but vital point. It shows that assuming that the law of universal gravitation is valid for charged masses is
provisional, that is, in for change.With the measurement of the slightest twist of a string, one may thus weigh the Earth, Sun, Moon and the planets! Direct the course of spaceships! Such is the power of the correct theory. Or rather, the more correct theory. Science is always
expounded from some pulpit or altar. Things have not changed, have they!?Thus I wonder, how much mad those around the likes of da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Franklin, Faraday thought them to be! They would not have had the faintest clue of what was going on. They would stoutly believe in established notions
by experiment. Recently the author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially theThe cause of gravity – 5
The fundamentals of electrostatic attraction leading to the structure of the atom
To recapitulate the thesis: “The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found
On Thursday, 30 March 2023 at 07:49:01 UTC+11, Enes Richard wrote:author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same formula with the
piątek, 3 lutego 2023 o 14:13:00 UTC+1 Arindam Banerjee napisał(a):
Note: I will be writing a series of articles about the cause of gravity in my facebook timeline, to satisfy my loyal school friends who seem interested. This is the first of such articles. I will also be posting them to sci.physics.
The cause of gravity – 1
Brief:
The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by experiment. Recently the
representation of gravity may somehow explain what is so far unexplained and not understood about the manifestations of Nature: such as capillary action in plants and narrow tubes where fluid rises up defying gravity and the law of conservation of energy;As such, there should be, among reasonable people, no quarrel with the new electrostatic representation of gravity, as on the surface it is a re-statement of the earlier statement. The curious may well be satisfied that an electrostatic
emit any measurable electric field. Finally, the electrostatic forces are estimated to be as per physics literature to be some 10^39 times stronger than the gravitational force. For all these reasons, the gravitational force has been held to be somethingBut, as presented – so far - without supporting logic as to its derivation, the new formula seems to be a trivial form of the existing formula, imparting no new knowledge. It may also seem preposterous as uncharged masses, by definition, do not
in the fundamentals of electrostatics, as simply as possible. Furthermore, I will as my target audience have my old school friends, whose loyalty and faith in my abilities I most deeply cherish. My sole request to them – and all my other friends inIt is my purpose, in the following articles, to show that despite the above sound objections arising from the existing scientific viewpoints, indeed the gravitational force is a manifestation of electrostatic force.
Instead of the just the physics community, I will make my appeal primarily to the intelligent lay public, who are innocent of whatever passes for modern physics. For that purpose, prior to making my new points, I will try to impart a crash course
say a body in free space surrounded by nothing. Let us have this in mind when we discuss how he managed to discover gravity, from the general level of the scientific thinking in his timeCheers,
Arindam Banerjee, 21/4/2020
The cause of gravity – 2
Historical background:
Sir Isaac Newton, in his great work known as the “Principia”, primarily stressed upon two factors; the role of geometry in modelling reality, and the use of mathematics to make correct and accurate predictions in idealised environments, like
They moved in crystal spheres that too revolved around the fixed Earth. The Christian Church devoutly followed the Aristotleian model, for it was perfectly, obviously, correct with the stars being proof of Heaven and the need to be religious and dutiful.
The scientific thinking of his time was Aristotleian. For many hundreds of years, it was believed that the Sun went around the Earth – exactly as we can all see for ourselves. The stars were the openings to Heaven, sending down heavenly light.
let us see how the Greeks calculated the distance to the Moon. They used parallax. This means that when one points to an object at one point, there is a certain angle with respect to a common plane. From another point on the same plane, there is aSo the ancients did their science in their own way, basically through empirical methods as they lacked the theory and the resulting mathematical modeling. To the extent they were practical, following geometry, they got good results. As an example,
himself is also credited with inventing trigonometry! Incidentally, the parallax method is still used to this day to find the distance of stars and galaxies from our planet.Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC) used the parallax method to get the distance to the Moon with reasonable accuracy. The ancients may not have known about force and gravity the way we do, but they did know about parallax, geometry - and Hipparachus
enough. What he found was that the angular positions of heavenly bodies (stars, planets) changed the most every six months, constantly. The same old parallax system is at work, this time instead of the space between two eyes from our earlier example,Thus Isaac Newton was heir to the great Greek scientific traditions. He had been further influenced by Copernicus and Galileo. About these two, now: let us also get in touch with dates, we are doing some history after all!
Copernicus (1473-1543) is credited with discovering (in the West that is) the heliocentric system, that is, the Sun is fixed and the planets revolve around it. He did it without a telescope, just his naked eye with some pointing tools. And that was
believed it utterly. Exactly as they believe in special and general relativity, quantum theory, big bang, expanding universe, black holes, quarks, bosons, string theories, neutrinos, photons, fusion, e=mcc, spacetime, nothing can go faster than light,Back to Isaac Newton (1642 – 1737). It should be obvious from the mood of his time (as presented above) that the geocentric model was absolutely dominant – all the churches expounded it, the universities taught it, all rich and important people
but no one had asked it before. Why was it moving faster and faster (accelerating) as it fell? Newton thought that there had to be an attractive force between the mass of the Earth and the apple, which caused it to fall. It was moving faster and fasterIt is said that in 1666 (that is, when Newton was 24 and Galileo had been forced to recant his views only 33 years ago) that the famous apple fell on Newton’s head, or on the ground before him. Why did it fall to the ground? A simple question,
F=GmM/r^2. However let us not forget that the gravitational constant G was not known until Cavendish measured it in 1797-98, some 131 years after Newton had his famous insight, which had so far eluded everyone else.Newton theorized that the attractive force was proportional to the multiplicative product of the two masses attracting each other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. This directly leads to the present formula,
each other) or the sun being very small (like say Apollo’s chariot) revolved around the Earth; or - and this was supported by astronomical findings supporting Copernican model of the rotating Earth revolving around the Sun - the Earth actually movedIf masses did attract one another, just as the Earth attracts the falling apple, then why does not the Earth fall into the Sun, like the apple falling to the ground? Either gravity operated only on Earth (thus the Earth and the Sun did not attract
system, thus the universal theory of gravitation remains a theory, although one of the most powerful theories known, like the atomic theory. It is still a theory, for it cannot explain why ionised masses escape from the Sun’s extraordinaryIt was obvious that the Sun was far bigger than the Earth, from the phenomena of eclipses and the knowledge of the Moon’s dimensions. It is still not known 100% that gravitation works for heavenly system, the way it does for the apple-Earth
“falling into” the Sun, but because of its tangential velocity, “falling out” by more or less the same amount. (The” more or less” accounts for the elliptic orbit, that is, not purely circular, as Kepler (1571-1639) had worked out beforeThe Earth then has to move tangentially, always, for ever, to escape falling into the Sun. It certainly would do so if a giant hand stopped its motion! What Newton with his geometry and maths explained, clearly, was that the Earth is in fact always
by drag of some kind, including rocketry.The earlier point is worth pondering about, for a few minutes. It explains the motion of all satellites. The tangential motion allows the satellites to not fall back to the Earth, and keep constantly revolving unless the tangential speed is reduced
all angles. Always, always…. Such is the fundamental design of the Universe. Can we probe a bit deeper into its cause, now? I think some more groundwork is necessary.Another point about gravity – the gravitational force simply depends upon the existence of mass. It never changes for that mass. It is constant, always there. This mass always attracts, thus its force never changes, it is exerted all around in
expended when a force moves over a distance. There is a vast difference between force and energy – as I see it, force is for the physicists to better understand the workings of the Universe; and energy is for the businessmen to make money. So it is,22/04/2020
The cause of gravity – 3
The conception of force
Force is the central issue in physics – or at least, it should be the central issue in physics. It is from force that all things move, or stay put. Force moved over distance is work, and work has the same units as energy. Energy, then, is
operating in the same direction add up to one double-force. In opposite directions, they cancel out to zero. But energy has no direction. It is thus called a scalar quantity. Energy is usually defined as the capacity of a body to do work. It is furtherThe difference between force and energy is tricky. It is easy to confuse one for the other, and most people untrained in physics may do so. Force must have direction – it is thus called a vector. Because forces have direction, two separate forces
this force there is an active, incorporeal life; and I call it invisible because the body in which it is created does not increase in weight or in size; and of brief duration because it desires perpetually to subdue its cause, and when this is subdued itIs force equally slippery?
As far as I can see, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his Notes, made the first-ever proper description of force with the following statements:
“Force I define as a spiritual power, incorporeal and invisible, which with brief life is produced in those bodies which as the result of accidental violence are brought out of their natural state and condition. I have said spiritual because in
meaning it is transient, certainly nothing permanent. A perpetual desire to “subdue its cause” means that it is revolutionary. When successful in that “it kills itself” so is suicidal. This appears as quite a statement of the violent politicalSuch a definition of force is slippery indeed! From da Vinci’s definition, secularized, force is the “result of accidental violence” brought out “natural state and condition”. Thus it is random and violent. It is “brief in duration”,
natural state and condition” is known as inertia, formulated in the first law of motion. “Result of accidental violence” refers to acceleration, and is formulated in the second law of motion. The statement “when this is subdued it kills itself”,It will not be difficult to see how much da Vinci’s conception of force - which in his day had to be purely mechanical - influencing later scientists like Galileo, led to the formulation of the well-known Newtonian laws of motion. The phrase “
the West, all the wonderful works in engineering have been done, from locomotives to jet engine airplanes; from muskets to missiles; small cars to huge ships! As force is slippery, so energy too is slippery. Energy mutates from one form to another. JustFrom the above discussion we find that the conception of mechanical force is not just slippery; it is random, violent, transient and suicidal. Nothing constant about force! And yet, with such conception of force, formed from the greatest minds in
is constant, spreading out in all directions, relatively very gentle, and permanent. Being all that, it is gravity which holds us all together on this planet; and it is gravity that makes the entire universe a permanent moving system composed ofThe above conception of force, so widely accepted because it was correct, makes Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity all the more remarkable. For gravity is not slippery, nor random, nor violent, transient and suicidal. It is the very opposite. It
this was found to be true. This inability to construct a perpetual motion machine was a factor in the definition of the law of conservation of energy, that energy could neither be created nor destroyed. Certainly this law is much appreciated by theA few more points: the random nature of mechanical force had led Leonardo da Vinci to conclude that a device that would perennially give out energy (a perpetual motion machine) was impossible. Even when gravity was discovered as a constant force,
this force” and “life”. Da Vinci is not talking of force as an expression of the inanimate – for him all forces relate to life and spring from some unknown higher purpose, thus blurring the line between physics and metaphysics.Researching Leonardo da Vinci’s comment on the nature of force, this time with a more modern mindset, we note the words “I have said spiritual because in this force there is an active, incorporeal life”. Now concentrate on the words “in
movement in one direction? What if instead of being pushed around by external forces, bodies can push themselves with internal “life force”? We all know that this is a dream monetized by science fiction. Can this fiction become fact? Can we overcome“Life force” thus is essentially internal. It comes from within, but is related to without. Going by da Vinci’s perception, it is inherently random and self-destructing. But what if it can be made to act otherwise, with the purpose of steady
published in the Science Section of Outlook Magazine, in India. I got fiercely hostile reactions to my article, which surprised me before I got disgusted with the low quality of scientific temper, from low personal attacks. For example, one Garg, aFor over twenty years, I have wrestled with the above issues. My work has been presented online. In 2000 I published in my “adda” website my book “To the Stars!”. It attracted minimal interest, till in 2003 an article by myself was
involving the theories of relativity, publish their weird notions, with amazing smoke screens of mathematical gibberish to confuse the most intelligent lay persons, in select journals and conferences, to maintain their high prestige. Their efforts areThe link for that article is at https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/newt-is-old-hat/220728
I now believe, that the editors thought that I was attacking Newton with my new ideas, and that was the reason for its publication!
Arindam Banerjee
25 April 2020
The cause of gravity – 4
Measuring fundamental constants (G) and the meaning of research
(start rant)
Today the entire field of physics is thoroughly institutionalised, with standardised thinking dedicated to perpetuating the established orthodoxies, like any religion. These high priests – in the field of what is called “modern physics”
however hardly ever happens. Anything revolutionary in physics, involving low budgets and lone endeavour is automatically discarded as cranky or plain wrong if it goes against the grain of the orthodoxies.So much is this notion prevalent, that only the expenditure of millions or billions of dollars involving vast projects such as making black holes, or fusion energy, is considered solely necessary to finding something new and wonderful – which,
example, as the discoverer of the force of gravity. But his discovery in 1666 was far from complete. He could only indicate that the gravitational force between two masses was proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to(end rant)
The greatest advances in physics did not require huge investments in money and manpower. What was needed was insight, dedication, patience, skill, tenacity… of the talented amateur, working with minimal help. Sir Isaac Newton is the best known
attempt to recreate a model of the original apparatus is shown in the Youtube video film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1lCjq4IzJwIt was only in 1798 (that is 135 years after Newton’s discovery) that the Gravitational Constant was found from measurement, by Henry Cavendish. The experiment was painstakingly done by Cavendish, but the apparatus itself was simple. A recent
heavy lead balls were placed near the suspended balls, such that they could each attract the suspended ball in the same direction so as to produce the maximum twisting effect (torque) upon the string. How much the string would twist, could be found outCavendish’s experiment was conducted in a large sealed room, to prevent air currents. Two lead balls, spaced widely apart were joined by a thin light rod. A fine string suspended these two balls from their centre of mass, from the ceiling. Two
The main issue is calibration, for any measurement.So much (from above) I have got from the literature, and the rest is my own construction, relating to the necessary calibration and measurement. The gravitational force is very small. And yet, it can be measured correctly with proper application.
point of twist. Or T=F*r. With equal force from the other end it is T=F*r + F*r = 2Fr or F.d. The torque motion will be resisted by the material in the string – it cannot twist indefinitely - after a certain angle (depending upon the quality) theWhat we have to know is how much the thread twists for a certain torque (twisting action). Let us say that the length of the suspended rod with its attached balls is ten meters. Torque is equal to the force F multiplied by the distance r to the
continuous torque now acts on the suspended string. It will twist by a certain angle, then stop twisting. Measure that angle. Now make more experiments with increasing or decreasing weights, and changing the distances involved, to get many values ofThe issue of calibration now comes in. Let us see how it can be done. From about 10 cm from the centre of the suspending string, tie a fine thread to the rod on both sides. Slide it over a pulley to a suspended mass of say 1 gram, on both sides. A
be created till the suspended string twists by an angle theta. Knowing k and theta, the torque T is known. Knowing the torque T and the distance d, the gravitational force F between the suspended ball of mass m and the heavy ball of mass M is known.The rest of the experiment is simple. Just get the very heavy balls of lead near to the suspended balls, at right angles and as near as possible without touching. The small balls will be attracted by this extra mass near them, and the torque will
lead balls in an experiment are attracted with the constant G, but all bodies in the universe) it falls with a force F which by Newton’s second law is equal to m.gG = F*r*r/(m*M)
With this formula, Cavendish could work out the mass of the Earth, knowing g, the acceleration due to gravity. Every apple of mass m falls to the Earth with mass M, by the law of universal gravitation (it is assumed now that as per Newton not just
of the Earth is 5.96 *10^24 Kg. How nice! Knowing the mass of the Earth we can also find the mass of the Sun, Moon and so on. In the practical sense, we can know how much force is exerted by the Earth on distant objects like satellites or space vehicles.The above equation can be written as M=F*r*r/(G.m) With F=mg, it is M=r*r*g/G
For the fun of it, let us put in the values to get the mass of the Earth! r is the Earth’s radius which is 6371 Km or 6371000 m. g on the surface is 9.8 m/sec/sec. G is found to be 6.674*10^-11 in MKS units. The calculator result is that the mass
established search in a new way each time, with a slightly different angle, with the knowledge of relevant new knowledge and finally with special insight (from the Divine, in my case and with all my heroes in science: Plato, da Vinci, Newton, Maxwell,**** NEW ****
So far we have been dealing with the known. Research to most means looking things up, but as a professional researcher I do not call that research; I call that search. Research (re-search or search again and again and again…) means looking at an
subject to gravitational forces, so the ion streaming from the Sun is a mystery.Applying that notion of research to the notion of the gravitational constant G, what do we find?
**** INSIGHT ****
We find that none of the masses involved in the experiment were charged with electricity.
*****************
Which amounts to, the law of universal gravitation may or may not apply to charged masses. This explains why ions stream out of the Sun, despite the Sun’s huge gravitational force. However up till now, we had assumed that charged masses were
electrostatics in the next instalment. That will be the prelude to expressing the equation of universal gravitation in electrostatic terms.But what is charge? Sir Isaac Newton had no idea about charge, no clue about electricity. Cavendish may have had some idea, for his apparatus was a large torsion balance, used to measure electrostatic forces. We will go into the details of
an assumption. It is the job of the researcher, that is, one who searches old stuff with new eyes, to point this out. And that is what I have done. And will be doing, in later instalments.Arindam Banerjee
29 April 2020
Further comments in my facebook post: 29 April 2020
understand this, that the Gravitational Constant was measured only with masses with no charge in them. Both were uncharged. This is a small but vital point. It shows that assuming that the law of universal gravitation is valid for charged masses is
provisional, that is, in for change.With the measurement of the slightest twist of a string, one may thus weigh the Earth, Sun, Moon and the planets! Direct the course of spaceships! Such is the power of the correct theory. Or rather, the more correct theory. Science is always
expounded from some pulpit or altar. Things have not changed, have they!?Thus I wonder, how much mad those around the likes of da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Franklin, Faraday thought them to be! They would not have had the faintest clue of what was going on. They would stoutly believe in established notions
The cause of gravity – 5
The fundamentals of electrostatic attraction leading to the structure of the atom
On Thursday, 30 March 2023 at 07:49:01 UTC+11, Enes Richard wrote:author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same formula with the
piątek, 3 lutego 2023 o 14:13:00 UTC+1 Arindam Banerjee napisał(a):
Note: I will be writing a series of articles about the cause of gravity in my facebook timeline, to satisfy my loyal school friends who seem interested. This is the first of such articles. I will also be posting them to sci.physics.
The cause of gravity – 1
Brief:
The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by experiment. Recently the
representation of gravity may somehow explain what is so far unexplained and not understood about the manifestations of Nature: such as capillary action in plants and narrow tubes where fluid rises up defying gravity and the law of conservation of energy;As such, there should be, among reasonable people, no quarrel with the new electrostatic representation of gravity, as on the surface it is a re-statement of the earlier statement. The curious may well be satisfied that an electrostatic
emit any measurable electric field. Finally, the electrostatic forces are estimated to be as per physics literature to be some 10^39 times stronger than the gravitational force. For all these reasons, the gravitational force has been held to be somethingBut, as presented – so far - without supporting logic as to its derivation, the new formula seems to be a trivial form of the existing formula, imparting no new knowledge. It may also seem preposterous as uncharged masses, by definition, do not
in the fundamentals of electrostatics, as simply as possible. Furthermore, I will as my target audience have my old school friends, whose loyalty and faith in my abilities I most deeply cherish. My sole request to them – and all my other friends inIt is my purpose, in the following articles, to show that despite the above sound objections arising from the existing scientific viewpoints, indeed the gravitational force is a manifestation of electrostatic force.
Instead of the just the physics community, I will make my appeal primarily to the intelligent lay public, who are innocent of whatever passes for modern physics. For that purpose, prior to making my new points, I will try to impart a crash course
say a body in free space surrounded by nothing. Let us have this in mind when we discuss how he managed to discover gravity, from the general level of the scientific thinking in his timeCheers,
Arindam Banerjee, 21/4/2020
The cause of gravity – 2
Historical background:
Sir Isaac Newton, in his great work known as the “Principia”, primarily stressed upon two factors; the role of geometry in modelling reality, and the use of mathematics to make correct and accurate predictions in idealised environments, like
They moved in crystal spheres that too revolved around the fixed Earth. The Christian Church devoutly followed the Aristotleian model, for it was perfectly, obviously, correct with the stars being proof of Heaven and the need to be religious and dutiful.
The scientific thinking of his time was Aristotleian. For many hundreds of years, it was believed that the Sun went around the Earth – exactly as we can all see for ourselves. The stars were the openings to Heaven, sending down heavenly light.
let us see how the Greeks calculated the distance to the Moon. They used parallax. This means that when one points to an object at one point, there is a certain angle with respect to a common plane. From another point on the same plane, there is aSo the ancients did their science in their own way, basically through empirical methods as they lacked the theory and the resulting mathematical modeling. To the extent they were practical, following geometry, they got good results. As an example,
himself is also credited with inventing trigonometry! Incidentally, the parallax method is still used to this day to find the distance of stars and galaxies from our planet.Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC) used the parallax method to get the distance to the Moon with reasonable accuracy. The ancients may not have known about force and gravity the way we do, but they did know about parallax, geometry - and Hipparachus
enough. What he found was that the angular positions of heavenly bodies (stars, planets) changed the most every six months, constantly. The same old parallax system is at work, this time instead of the space between two eyes from our earlier example,Thus Isaac Newton was heir to the great Greek scientific traditions. He had been further influenced by Copernicus and Galileo. About these two, now: let us also get in touch with dates, we are doing some history after all!
Copernicus (1473-1543) is credited with discovering (in the West that is) the heliocentric system, that is, the Sun is fixed and the planets revolve around it. He did it without a telescope, just his naked eye with some pointing tools. And that was
believed it utterly. Exactly as they believe in special and general relativity, quantum theory, big bang, expanding universe, black holes, quarks, bosons, string theories, neutrinos, photons, fusion, e=mcc, spacetime, nothing can go faster than light,Back to Isaac Newton (1642 – 1737). It should be obvious from the mood of his time (as presented above) that the geocentric model was absolutely dominant – all the churches expounded it, the universities taught it, all rich and important people
but no one had asked it before. Why was it moving faster and faster (accelerating) as it fell? Newton thought that there had to be an attractive force between the mass of the Earth and the apple, which caused it to fall. It was moving faster and fasterIt is said that in 1666 (that is, when Newton was 24 and Galileo had been forced to recant his views only 33 years ago) that the famous apple fell on Newton’s head, or on the ground before him. Why did it fall to the ground? A simple question,
F=GmM/r^2. However let us not forget that the gravitational constant G was not known until Cavendish measured it in 1797-98, some 131 years after Newton had his famous insight, which had so far eluded everyone else.Newton theorized that the attractive force was proportional to the multiplicative product of the two masses attracting each other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. This directly leads to the present formula,
each other) or the sun being very small (like say Apollo’s chariot) revolved around the Earth; or - and this was supported by astronomical findings supporting Copernican model of the rotating Earth revolving around the Sun - the Earth actually movedIf masses did attract one another, just as the Earth attracts the falling apple, then why does not the Earth fall into the Sun, like the apple falling to the ground? Either gravity operated only on Earth (thus the Earth and the Sun did not attract
system, thus the universal theory of gravitation remains a theory, although one of the most powerful theories known, like the atomic theory. It is still a theory, for it cannot explain why ionised masses escape from the Sun’s extraordinaryIt was obvious that the Sun was far bigger than the Earth, from the phenomena of eclipses and the knowledge of the Moon’s dimensions. It is still not known 100% that gravitation works for heavenly system, the way it does for the apple-Earth
“falling into” the Sun, but because of its tangential velocity, “falling out” by more or less the same amount. (The” more or less” accounts for the elliptic orbit, that is, not purely circular, as Kepler (1571-1639) had worked out beforeThe Earth then has to move tangentially, always, for ever, to escape falling into the Sun. It certainly would do so if a giant hand stopped its motion! What Newton with his geometry and maths explained, clearly, was that the Earth is in fact always
by drag of some kind, including rocketry.The earlier point is worth pondering about, for a few minutes. It explains the motion of all satellites. The tangential motion allows the satellites to not fall back to the Earth, and keep constantly revolving unless the tangential speed is reduced
all angles. Always, always…. Such is the fundamental design of the Universe. Can we probe a bit deeper into its cause, now? I think some more groundwork is necessary.Another point about gravity – the gravitational force simply depends upon the existence of mass. It never changes for that mass. It is constant, always there. This mass always attracts, thus its force never changes, it is exerted all around in
expended when a force moves over a distance. There is a vast difference between force and energy – as I see it, force is for the physicists to better understand the workings of the Universe; and energy is for the businessmen to make money. So it is,22/04/2020
The cause of gravity – 3
The conception of force
Force is the central issue in physics – or at least, it should be the central issue in physics. It is from force that all things move, or stay put. Force moved over distance is work, and work has the same units as energy. Energy, then, is
operating in the same direction add up to one double-force. In opposite directions, they cancel out to zero. But energy has no direction. It is thus called a scalar quantity. Energy is usually defined as the capacity of a body to do work. It is furtherThe difference between force and energy is tricky. It is easy to confuse one for the other, and most people untrained in physics may do so. Force must have direction – it is thus called a vector. Because forces have direction, two separate forces
this force there is an active, incorporeal life; and I call it invisible because the body in which it is created does not increase in weight or in size; and of brief duration because it desires perpetually to subdue its cause, and when this is subdued itIs force equally slippery?
As far as I can see, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his Notes, made the first-ever proper description of force with the following statements:
“Force I define as a spiritual power, incorporeal and invisible, which with brief life is produced in those bodies which as the result of accidental violence are brought out of their natural state and condition. I have said spiritual because in
meaning it is transient, certainly nothing permanent. A perpetual desire to “subdue its cause” means that it is revolutionary. When successful in that “it kills itself” so is suicidal. This appears as quite a statement of the violent politicalSuch a definition of force is slippery indeed! From da Vinci’s definition, secularized, force is the “result of accidental violence” brought out “natural state and condition”. Thus it is random and violent. It is “brief in duration”,
natural state and condition” is known as inertia, formulated in the first law of motion. “Result of accidental violence” refers to acceleration, and is formulated in the second law of motion. The statement “when this is subdued it kills itself”,It will not be difficult to see how much da Vinci’s conception of force - which in his day had to be purely mechanical - influencing later scientists like Galileo, led to the formulation of the well-known Newtonian laws of motion. The phrase “
the West, all the wonderful works in engineering have been done, from locomotives to jet engine airplanes; from muskets to missiles; small cars to huge ships! As force is slippery, so energy too is slippery. Energy mutates from one form to another. JustFrom the above discussion we find that the conception of mechanical force is not just slippery; it is random, violent, transient and suicidal. Nothing constant about force! And yet, with such conception of force, formed from the greatest minds in
is constant, spreading out in all directions, relatively very gentle, and permanent. Being all that, it is gravity which holds us all together on this planet; and it is gravity that makes the entire universe a permanent moving system composed ofThe above conception of force, so widely accepted because it was correct, makes Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity all the more remarkable. For gravity is not slippery, nor random, nor violent, transient and suicidal. It is the very opposite. It
this was found to be true. This inability to construct a perpetual motion machine was a factor in the definition of the law of conservation of energy, that energy could neither be created nor destroyed. Certainly this law is much appreciated by theA few more points: the random nature of mechanical force had led Leonardo da Vinci to conclude that a device that would perennially give out energy (a perpetual motion machine) was impossible. Even when gravity was discovered as a constant force,
this force” and “life”. Da Vinci is not talking of force as an expression of the inanimate – for him all forces relate to life and spring from some unknown higher purpose, thus blurring the line between physics and metaphysics.Researching Leonardo da Vinci’s comment on the nature of force, this time with a more modern mindset, we note the words “I have said spiritual because in this force there is an active, incorporeal life”. Now concentrate on the words “in
movement in one direction? What if instead of being pushed around by external forces, bodies can push themselves with internal “life force”? We all know that this is a dream monetized by science fiction. Can this fiction become fact? Can we overcome“Life force” thus is essentially internal. It comes from within, but is related to without. Going by da Vinci’s perception, it is inherently random and self-destructing. But what if it can be made to act otherwise, with the purpose of steady
published in the Science Section of Outlook Magazine, in India. I got fiercely hostile reactions to my article, which surprised me before I got disgusted with the low quality of scientific temper, from low personal attacks. For example, one Garg, aFor over twenty years, I have wrestled with the above issues. My work has been presented online. In 2000 I published in my “adda” website my book “To the Stars!”. It attracted minimal interest, till in 2003 an article by myself was
involving the theories of relativity, publish their weird notions, with amazing smoke screens of mathematical gibberish to confuse the most intelligent lay persons, in select journals and conferences, to maintain their high prestige. Their efforts areThe link for that article is at https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/newt-is-old-hat/220728
I now believe, that the editors thought that I was attacking Newton with my new ideas, and that was the reason for its publication!
Arindam Banerjee
25 April 2020
The cause of gravity – 4
Measuring fundamental constants (G) and the meaning of research
(start rant)
Today the entire field of physics is thoroughly institutionalised, with standardised thinking dedicated to perpetuating the established orthodoxies, like any religion. These high priests – in the field of what is called “modern physics”
however hardly ever happens. Anything revolutionary in physics, involving low budgets and lone endeavour is automatically discarded as cranky or plain wrong if it goes against the grain of the orthodoxies.So much is this notion prevalent, that only the expenditure of millions or billions of dollars involving vast projects such as making black holes, or fusion energy, is considered solely necessary to finding something new and wonderful – which,
example, as the discoverer of the force of gravity. But his discovery in 1666 was far from complete. He could only indicate that the gravitational force between two masses was proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to(end rant)
The greatest advances in physics did not require huge investments in money and manpower. What was needed was insight, dedication, patience, skill, tenacity… of the talented amateur, working with minimal help. Sir Isaac Newton is the best known
attempt to recreate a model of the original apparatus is shown in the Youtube video film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1lCjq4IzJwIt was only in 1798 (that is 135 years after Newton’s discovery) that the Gravitational Constant was found from measurement, by Henry Cavendish. The experiment was painstakingly done by Cavendish, but the apparatus itself was simple. A recent
heavy lead balls were placed near the suspended balls, such that they could each attract the suspended ball in the same direction so as to produce the maximum twisting effect (torque) upon the string. How much the string would twist, could be found outCavendish’s experiment was conducted in a large sealed room, to prevent air currents. Two lead balls, spaced widely apart were joined by a thin light rod. A fine string suspended these two balls from their centre of mass, from the ceiling. Two
The main issue is calibration, for any measurement.So much (from above) I have got from the literature, and the rest is my own construction, relating to the necessary calibration and measurement. The gravitational force is very small. And yet, it can be measured correctly with proper application.
point of twist. Or T=F*r. With equal force from the other end it is T=F*r + F*r = 2Fr or F.d. The torque motion will be resisted by the material in the string – it cannot twist indefinitely - after a certain angle (depending upon the quality) theWhat we have to know is how much the thread twists for a certain torque (twisting action). Let us say that the length of the suspended rod with its attached balls is ten meters. Torque is equal to the force F multiplied by the distance r to the
continuous torque now acts on the suspended string. It will twist by a certain angle, then stop twisting. Measure that angle. Now make more experiments with increasing or decreasing weights, and changing the distances involved, to get many values ofThe issue of calibration now comes in. Let us see how it can be done. From about 10 cm from the centre of the suspending string, tie a fine thread to the rod on both sides. Slide it over a pulley to a suspended mass of say 1 gram, on both sides. A
be created till the suspended string twists by an angle theta. Knowing k and theta, the torque T is known. Knowing the torque T and the distance d, the gravitational force F between the suspended ball of mass m and the heavy ball of mass M is known.The rest of the experiment is simple. Just get the very heavy balls of lead near to the suspended balls, at right angles and as near as possible without touching. The small balls will be attracted by this extra mass near them, and the torque will
lead balls in an experiment are attracted with the constant G, but all bodies in the universe) it falls with a force F which by Newton’s second law is equal to m.gG = F*r*r/(m*M)
With this formula, Cavendish could work out the mass of the Earth, knowing g, the acceleration due to gravity. Every apple of mass m falls to the Earth with mass M, by the law of universal gravitation (it is assumed now that as per Newton not just
of the Earth is 5.96 *10^24 Kg. How nice! Knowing the mass of the Earth we can also find the mass of the Sun, Moon and so on. In the practical sense, we can know how much force is exerted by the Earth on distant objects like satellites or space vehicles.The above equation can be written as M=F*r*r/(G.m) With F=mg, it is M=r*r*g/G
For the fun of it, let us put in the values to get the mass of the Earth! r is the Earth’s radius which is 6371 Km or 6371000 m. g on the surface is 9.8 m/sec/sec. G is found to be 6.674*10^-11 in MKS units. The calculator result is that the mass
established search in a new way each time, with a slightly different angle, with the knowledge of relevant new knowledge and finally with special insight (from the Divine, in my case and with all my heroes in science: Plato, da Vinci, Newton, Maxwell,**** NEW ****
So far we have been dealing with the known. Research to most means looking things up, but as a professional researcher I do not call that research; I call that search. Research (re-search or search again and again and again…) means looking at an
subject to gravitational forces, so the ion streaming from the Sun is a mystery.Applying that notion of research to the notion of the gravitational constant G, what do we find?
**** INSIGHT ****
We find that none of the masses involved in the experiment were charged with electricity.
*****************
Which amounts to, the law of universal gravitation may or may not apply to charged masses. This explains why ions stream out of the Sun, despite the Sun’s huge gravitational force. However up till now, we had assumed that charged masses were
electrostatics in the next instalment. That will be the prelude to expressing the equation of universal gravitation in electrostatic terms.But what is charge? Sir Isaac Newton had no idea about charge, no clue about electricity. Cavendish may have had some idea, for his apparatus was a large torsion balance, used to measure electrostatic forces. We will go into the details of
an assumption. It is the job of the researcher, that is, one who searches old stuff with new eyes, to point this out. And that is what I have done. And will be doing, in later instalments.Arindam Banerjee
29 April 2020
Further comments in my facebook post: 29 April 2020
understand this, that the Gravitational Constant was measured only with masses with no charge in them. Both were uncharged. This is a small but vital point. It shows that assuming that the law of universal gravitation is valid for charged masses is
provisional, that is, in for change.With the measurement of the slightest twist of a string, one may thus weigh the Earth, Sun, Moon and the planets! Direct the course of spaceships! Such is the power of the correct theory. Or rather, the more correct theory. Science is always
expounded from some pulpit or altar. Things have not changed, have they!?Thus I wonder, how much mad those around the likes of da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Franklin, Faraday thought them to be! They would not have had the faintest clue of what was going on. They would stoutly believe in established notions
The cause of gravity – 5
The fundamentals of electrostatic attraction leading to the structure of the atom
czwartek, 30 marca 2023 o 00:04:38 UTC+2 Arindam Banerjee napisał(a):author has updated this formula to F=BnN/r^2 where B is a constant, and n and N are the number of protons or electrons in the masses m and M. It is obvious that as n and N are proportional to m and M, this is essentially the same formula with the
On Thursday, 30 March 2023 at 07:49:01 UTC+11, Enes Richard wrote:
piątek, 3 lutego 2023 o 14:13:00 UTC+1 Arindam Banerjee napisał(a):
Note: I will be writing a series of articles about the cause of gravity in my facebook timeline, to satisfy my loyal school friends who seem interested. This is the first of such articles. I will also be posting them to sci.physics.
The cause of gravity – 1
Brief:
The formula for universal gravitation is well known to be, as the force F acting between two masses m and M, parted by a distance r from their centres of mass, as F=GmM/r^2, where G is the gravitational constant found by experiment. Recently the
representation of gravity may somehow explain what is so far unexplained and not understood about the manifestations of Nature: such as capillary action in plants and narrow tubes where fluid rises up defying gravity and the law of conservation of energy;As such, there should be, among reasonable people, no quarrel with the new electrostatic representation of gravity, as on the surface it is a re-statement of the earlier statement. The curious may well be satisfied that an electrostatic
emit any measurable electric field. Finally, the electrostatic forces are estimated to be as per physics literature to be some 10^39 times stronger than the gravitational force. For all these reasons, the gravitational force has been held to be somethingBut, as presented – so far - without supporting logic as to its derivation, the new formula seems to be a trivial form of the existing formula, imparting no new knowledge. It may also seem preposterous as uncharged masses, by definition, do not
in the fundamentals of electrostatics, as simply as possible. Furthermore, I will as my target audience have my old school friends, whose loyalty and faith in my abilities I most deeply cherish. My sole request to them – and all my other friends inIt is my purpose, in the following articles, to show that despite the above sound objections arising from the existing scientific viewpoints, indeed the gravitational force is a manifestation of electrostatic force.
Instead of the just the physics community, I will make my appeal primarily to the intelligent lay public, who are innocent of whatever passes for modern physics. For that purpose, prior to making my new points, I will try to impart a crash course
say a body in free space surrounded by nothing. Let us have this in mind when we discuss how he managed to discover gravity, from the general level of the scientific thinking in his timeCheers,
Arindam Banerjee, 21/4/2020
The cause of gravity – 2
Historical background:
Sir Isaac Newton, in his great work known as the “Principia”, primarily stressed upon two factors; the role of geometry in modelling reality, and the use of mathematics to make correct and accurate predictions in idealised environments, like
They moved in crystal spheres that too revolved around the fixed Earth. The Christian Church devoutly followed the Aristotleian model, for it was perfectly, obviously, correct with the stars being proof of Heaven and the need to be religious and dutiful.
The scientific thinking of his time was Aristotleian. For many hundreds of years, it was believed that the Sun went around the Earth – exactly as we can all see for ourselves. The stars were the openings to Heaven, sending down heavenly light.
let us see how the Greeks calculated the distance to the Moon. They used parallax. This means that when one points to an object at one point, there is a certain angle with respect to a common plane. From another point on the same plane, there is aSo the ancients did their science in their own way, basically through empirical methods as they lacked the theory and the resulting mathematical modeling. To the extent they were practical, following geometry, they got good results. As an example,
Hipparachus himself is also credited with inventing trigonometry! Incidentally, the parallax method is still used to this day to find the distance of stars and galaxies from our planet.Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC) used the parallax method to get the distance to the Moon with reasonable accuracy. The ancients may not have known about force and gravity the way we do, but they did know about parallax, geometry - and
was enough. What he found was that the angular positions of heavenly bodies (stars, planets) changed the most every six months, constantly. The same old parallax system is at work, this time instead of the space between two eyes from our earlier example,Thus Isaac Newton was heir to the great Greek scientific traditions. He had been further influenced by Copernicus and Galileo. About these two, now: let us also get in touch with dates, we are doing some history after all!
Copernicus (1473-1543) is credited with discovering (in the West that is) the heliocentric system, that is, the Sun is fixed and the planets revolve around it. He did it without a telescope, just his naked eye with some pointing tools. And that
people believed it utterly. Exactly as they believe in special and general relativity, quantum theory, big bang, expanding universe, black holes, quarks, bosons, string theories, neutrinos, photons, fusion, e=mcc, spacetime, nothing can go faster thanBack to Isaac Newton (1642 – 1737). It should be obvious from the mood of his time (as presented above) that the geocentric model was absolutely dominant – all the churches expounded it, the universities taught it, all rich and important
but no one had asked it before. Why was it moving faster and faster (accelerating) as it fell? Newton thought that there had to be an attractive force between the mass of the Earth and the apple, which caused it to fall. It was moving faster and fasterIt is said that in 1666 (that is, when Newton was 24 and Galileo had been forced to recant his views only 33 years ago) that the famous apple fell on Newton’s head, or on the ground before him. Why did it fall to the ground? A simple question,
formula, F=GmM/r^2. However let us not forget that the gravitational constant G was not known until Cavendish measured it in 1797-98, some 131 years after Newton had his famous insight, which had so far eluded everyone else.Newton theorized that the attractive force was proportional to the multiplicative product of the two masses attracting each other, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them. This directly leads to the present
attract each other) or the sun being very small (like say Apollo’s chariot) revolved around the Earth; or - and this was supported by astronomical findings supporting Copernican model of the rotating Earth revolving around the Sun - the Earth actuallyIf masses did attract one another, just as the Earth attracts the falling apple, then why does not the Earth fall into the Sun, like the apple falling to the ground? Either gravity operated only on Earth (thus the Earth and the Sun did not
system, thus the universal theory of gravitation remains a theory, although one of the most powerful theories known, like the atomic theory. It is still a theory, for it cannot explain why ionised masses escape from the Sun’s extraordinaryIt was obvious that the Sun was far bigger than the Earth, from the phenomena of eclipses and the knowledge of the Moon’s dimensions. It is still not known 100% that gravitation works for heavenly system, the way it does for the apple-Earth
always “falling into” the Sun, but because of its tangential velocity, “falling out” by more or less the same amount. (The” more or less” accounts for the elliptic orbit, that is, not purely circular, as Kepler (1571-1639) had worked outThe Earth then has to move tangentially, always, for ever, to escape falling into the Sun. It certainly would do so if a giant hand stopped its motion! What Newton with his geometry and maths explained, clearly, was that the Earth is in fact
reduced by drag of some kind, including rocketry.The earlier point is worth pondering about, for a few minutes. It explains the motion of all satellites. The tangential motion allows the satellites to not fall back to the Earth, and keep constantly revolving unless the tangential speed is
all angles. Always, always…. Such is the fundamental design of the Universe. Can we probe a bit deeper into its cause, now? I think some more groundwork is necessary.Another point about gravity – the gravitational force simply depends upon the existence of mass. It never changes for that mass. It is constant, always there. This mass always attracts, thus its force never changes, it is exerted all around in
expended when a force moves over a distance. There is a vast difference between force and energy – as I see it, force is for the physicists to better understand the workings of the Universe; and energy is for the businessmen to make money. So it is,22/04/2020
The cause of gravity – 3
The conception of force
Force is the central issue in physics – or at least, it should be the central issue in physics. It is from force that all things move, or stay put. Force moved over distance is work, and work has the same units as energy. Energy, then, is
forces operating in the same direction add up to one double-force. In opposite directions, they cancel out to zero. But energy has no direction. It is thus called a scalar quantity. Energy is usually defined as the capacity of a body to do work. It isThe difference between force and energy is tricky. It is easy to confuse one for the other, and most people untrained in physics may do so. Force must have direction – it is thus called a vector. Because forces have direction, two separate
this force there is an active, incorporeal life; and I call it invisible because the body in which it is created does not increase in weight or in size; and of brief duration because it desires perpetually to subdue its cause, and when this is subdued itIs force equally slippery?
As far as I can see, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), in his Notes, made the first-ever proper description of force with the following statements:
“Force I define as a spiritual power, incorporeal and invisible, which with brief life is produced in those bodies which as the result of accidental violence are brought out of their natural state and condition. I have said spiritual because in
meaning it is transient, certainly nothing permanent. A perpetual desire to “subdue its cause” means that it is revolutionary. When successful in that “it kills itself” so is suicidal. This appears as quite a statement of the violent politicalSuch a definition of force is slippery indeed! From da Vinci’s definition, secularized, force is the “result of accidental violence” brought out “natural state and condition”. Thus it is random and violent. It is “brief in duration”,
natural state and condition” is known as inertia, formulated in the first law of motion. “Result of accidental violence” refers to acceleration, and is formulated in the second law of motion. The statement “when this is subdued it kills itself”,It will not be difficult to see how much da Vinci’s conception of force - which in his day had to be purely mechanical - influencing later scientists like Galileo, led to the formulation of the well-known Newtonian laws of motion. The phrase “
the West, all the wonderful works in engineering have been done, from locomotives to jet engine airplanes; from muskets to missiles; small cars to huge ships! As force is slippery, so energy too is slippery. Energy mutates from one form to another. JustFrom the above discussion we find that the conception of mechanical force is not just slippery; it is random, violent, transient and suicidal. Nothing constant about force! And yet, with such conception of force, formed from the greatest minds in
It is constant, spreading out in all directions, relatively very gentle, and permanent. Being all that, it is gravity which holds us all together on this planet; and it is gravity that makes the entire universe a permanent moving system composed ofThe above conception of force, so widely accepted because it was correct, makes Isaac Newton’s discovery of gravity all the more remarkable. For gravity is not slippery, nor random, nor violent, transient and suicidal. It is the very opposite.
this was found to be true. This inability to construct a perpetual motion machine was a factor in the definition of the law of conservation of energy, that energy could neither be created nor destroyed. Certainly this law is much appreciated by theA few more points: the random nature of mechanical force had led Leonardo da Vinci to conclude that a device that would perennially give out energy (a perpetual motion machine) was impossible. Even when gravity was discovered as a constant force,
this force” and “life”. Da Vinci is not talking of force as an expression of the inanimate – for him all forces relate to life and spring from some unknown higher purpose, thus blurring the line between physics and metaphysics.Researching Leonardo da Vinci’s comment on the nature of force, this time with a more modern mindset, we note the words “I have said spiritual because in this force there is an active, incorporeal life”. Now concentrate on the words “in
steady movement in one direction? What if instead of being pushed around by external forces, bodies can push themselves with internal “life force”? We all know that this is a dream monetized by science fiction. Can this fiction become fact? Can we“Life force” thus is essentially internal. It comes from within, but is related to without. Going by da Vinci’s perception, it is inherently random and self-destructing. But what if it can be made to act otherwise, with the purpose of
published in the Science Section of Outlook Magazine, in India. I got fiercely hostile reactions to my article, which surprised me before I got disgusted with the low quality of scientific temper, from low personal attacks. For example, one Garg, aFor over twenty years, I have wrestled with the above issues. My work has been presented online. In 2000 I published in my “adda” website my book “To the Stars!”. It attracted minimal interest, till in 2003 an article by myself was
involving the theories of relativity, publish their weird notions, with amazing smoke screens of mathematical gibberish to confuse the most intelligent lay persons, in select journals and conferences, to maintain their high prestige. Their efforts areThe link for that article is at https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/newt-is-old-hat/220728
I now believe, that the editors thought that I was attacking Newton with my new ideas, and that was the reason for its publication!
Arindam Banerjee
25 April 2020
The cause of gravity – 4
Measuring fundamental constants (G) and the meaning of research
(start rant)
Today the entire field of physics is thoroughly institutionalised, with standardised thinking dedicated to perpetuating the established orthodoxies, like any religion. These high priests – in the field of what is called “modern physics”
however hardly ever happens. Anything revolutionary in physics, involving low budgets and lone endeavour is automatically discarded as cranky or plain wrong if it goes against the grain of the orthodoxies.So much is this notion prevalent, that only the expenditure of millions or billions of dollars involving vast projects such as making black holes, or fusion energy, is considered solely necessary to finding something new and wonderful – which,
example, as the discoverer of the force of gravity. But his discovery in 1666 was far from complete. He could only indicate that the gravitational force between two masses was proportional to the product of the two masses, and inversely proportional to(end rant)
The greatest advances in physics did not require huge investments in money and manpower. What was needed was insight, dedication, patience, skill, tenacity… of the talented amateur, working with minimal help. Sir Isaac Newton is the best known
attempt to recreate a model of the original apparatus is shown in the Youtube video film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1lCjq4IzJwIt was only in 1798 (that is 135 years after Newton’s discovery) that the Gravitational Constant was found from measurement, by Henry Cavendish. The experiment was painstakingly done by Cavendish, but the apparatus itself was simple. A recent
heavy lead balls were placed near the suspended balls, such that they could each attract the suspended ball in the same direction so as to produce the maximum twisting effect (torque) upon the string. How much the string would twist, could be found outCavendish’s experiment was conducted in a large sealed room, to prevent air currents. Two lead balls, spaced widely apart were joined by a thin light rod. A fine string suspended these two balls from their centre of mass, from the ceiling. Two
The main issue is calibration, for any measurement.So much (from above) I have got from the literature, and the rest is my own construction, relating to the necessary calibration and measurement. The gravitational force is very small. And yet, it can be measured correctly with proper application.
point of twist. Or T=F*r. With equal force from the other end it is T=F*r + F*r = 2Fr or F.d. The torque motion will be resisted by the material in the string – it cannot twist indefinitely - after a certain angle (depending upon the quality) theWhat we have to know is how much the thread twists for a certain torque (twisting action). Let us say that the length of the suspended rod with its attached balls is ten meters. Torque is equal to the force F multiplied by the distance r to the
A continuous torque now acts on the suspended string. It will twist by a certain angle, then stop twisting. Measure that angle. Now make more experiments with increasing or decreasing weights, and changing the distances involved, to get many values ofThe issue of calibration now comes in. Let us see how it can be done. From about 10 cm from the centre of the suspending string, tie a fine thread to the rod on both sides. Slide it over a pulley to a suspended mass of say 1 gram, on both sides.
be created till the suspended string twists by an angle theta. Knowing k and theta, the torque T is known. Knowing the torque T and the distance d, the gravitational force F between the suspended ball of mass m and the heavy ball of mass M is known.The rest of the experiment is simple. Just get the very heavy balls of lead near to the suspended balls, at right angles and as near as possible without touching. The small balls will be attracted by this extra mass near them, and the torque will
just lead balls in an experiment are attracted with the constant G, but all bodies in the universe) it falls with a force F which by Newton’s second law is equal to m.gG = F*r*r/(m*M)
With this formula, Cavendish could work out the mass of the Earth, knowing g, the acceleration due to gravity. Every apple of mass m falls to the Earth with mass M, by the law of universal gravitation (it is assumed now that as per Newton not
mass of the Earth is 5.96 *10^24 Kg. How nice! Knowing the mass of the Earth we can also find the mass of the Sun, Moon and so on. In the practical sense, we can know how much force is exerted by the Earth on distant objects like satellites or spaceThe above equation can be written as M=F*r*r/(G.m) With F=mg, it is M=r*r*g/G
For the fun of it, let us put in the values to get the mass of the Earth! r is the Earth’s radius which is 6371 Km or 6371000 m. g on the surface is 9.8 m/sec/sec. G is found to be 6.674*10^-11 in MKS units. The calculator result is that the
an established search in a new way each time, with a slightly different angle, with the knowledge of relevant new knowledge and finally with special insight (from the Divine, in my case and with all my heroes in science: Plato, da Vinci, Newton, Maxwell,**** NEW ****
So far we have been dealing with the known. Research to most means looking things up, but as a professional researcher I do not call that research; I call that search. Research (re-search or search again and again and again…) means looking at
subject to gravitational forces, so the ion streaming from the Sun is a mystery.Applying that notion of research to the notion of the gravitational constant G, what do we find?
**** INSIGHT ****
We find that none of the masses involved in the experiment were charged with electricity.
*****************
Which amounts to, the law of universal gravitation may or may not apply to charged masses. This explains why ions stream out of the Sun, despite the Sun’s huge gravitational force. However up till now, we had assumed that charged masses were
electrostatics in the next instalment. That will be the prelude to expressing the equation of universal gravitation in electrostatic terms.But what is charge? Sir Isaac Newton had no idea about charge, no clue about electricity. Cavendish may have had some idea, for his apparatus was a large torsion balance, used to measure electrostatic forces. We will go into the details of
is an assumption. It is the job of the researcher, that is, one who searches old stuff with new eyes, to point this out. And that is what I have done. And will be doing, in later instalments.Arindam Banerjee
29 April 2020
Further comments in my facebook post: 29 April 2020
understand this, that the Gravitational Constant was measured only with masses with no charge in them. Both were uncharged. This is a small but vital point. It shows that assuming that the law of universal gravitation is valid for charged masses
provisional, that is, in for change.With the measurement of the slightest twist of a string, one may thus weigh the Earth, Sun, Moon and the planets! Direct the course of spaceships! Such is the power of the correct theory. Or rather, the more correct theory. Science is always
expounded from some pulpit or altar. Things have not changed, have they!?Thus I wonder, how much mad those around the likes of da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Cavendish, Franklin, Faraday thought them to be! They would not have had the faintest clue of what was going on. They would stoutly believe in established notions
The cause of gravity – 5
The fundamentals of electrostatic attraction leading to the structure of the atom
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