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RE-POST: FAQ 2/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions

See 1/3 See this part for a list of food science related sites and a
list of abbreviations.

See 3/3 for general questions and answers about food science.

*****************************************************************************

IV.DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF FOOD RELATED TERMS

In the following list of definitions of food-related words and
phrases, some of the items relate to the requirements under UK and/or
European laws, regulations or Codes of Practice. In the near future
anther list will be given referring to the requirements under US laws
and regulations, and, in time, those of other countries.

Any questions or comments about these definitions and
interpretations should be directed to: <jralphb@easynet.co.uk

INTRODUCTION

In 1987, the Technical and Legislative Committee (TLC) of the
Institute of Food Science & Technology, conscious that many
descriptions of, or claims about, foods were made using ill-defined
terms which were potentially misleading, set out to remedy that
situation. Making use both of published material and the expertise of
the Committee, it prepared and issued objective "definitions" for
certain key words, a few of which were not considered potentially
confusing but merely useful to include.

The intention was not strict definitions in the dictionary
sense. Some were accounts or interpretations of the limitations
within which the use of a particular term was justified. Moreover,
the intention was not to produce a comprehensive dictionary of
food-related terms, but rather a guide to food scientists and
technologists, and others professionally concerned with descriptions
of foods, particularly in labelling and advertising. In 1989, the
list was expanded and published in Food Science & Technology Today 3
(2), 128-9.

In the period since that publication, some of those terms have
been "officially" defined in legislation, official guidelines or
Codes of Practice - and it is gratifying to note the extent to which
these follow the lines of the definitions in the 1989 document. In
the same period, members of IFST and of the Association of Public
Analysts have suggested additional terms that are in common usage but
are ill-defined or sometimes misused. Accordingly, the two
professional bodies have decided to produce jointly an updated list.

The list given here includes some terms that were in the 1989
list (in some cases modified or updated); and some terms that have
been defined in the interim in legislation or in codes or guides.
Many of the terms listed here have wider connotations in relation to
which they may be defined or interpreted; but here it is only the
food-related usage that is addressed.

We draw attention to the category Marketing Terms at the end of
this document, in which have been listed a number of terms often used
without real meaning in relation to manufactured food products.

As before, it is hoped that the use, by professionals, of these
definitions and interpretations will help to minimise confusion and
misleading use of the terms. With any such exercise, some readers
will have differing views on individual items, or on the desirability
of including other terms. IFST and APA will be glad to receive
constructive comments from members, for consideration when this
document is next revised and updated.

Finally, it is pointed out that definitions other than those
derived from EU or UK legislation, and all interpretations expressed
here, are opinion, albeit opinion based on the views of the experts
involved in their compilation. The information in this document may
not be taken as binding on Public Analysts or enforcement authorities,
and, in the event of dispute, only the courts can decide.

Malvern Barnett
J Ralph Blanchfield

Adulteration

The addition or contamination of a food by a substance foreign
to the normal product, which debases it or disguises inferior
quality. See Unadulterated.

Botulinum Cook

The heat treatment given to a low acid canned food (having
a pH higher than 4.2) sufficient to inactivate 1012 spores of
Clostridium botulinum. This heat treatment is called the Fo value
and it is equivalent to a process of 3 mins at 121 degC, 10 mins at
115 degC or 32 mins at 110 degC.

Biopolymer

A compound consisting of repeating units of a single
biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched,
e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.

Biotechnology

The application of biological science to the production,
modification or processing of materials. It encompasses
long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal
breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more
modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation
technology for the production of some novel protein foods. Though
meal preparation is arguably a form of biotechnology, it is already
covered in other newsgroups, such as rec.cooking.* hierarchy.

Boiled

Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by
steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').

Chilled food

Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it
remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature
usually between 2 and 8 degC.

Chilled food chain

The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial
harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after
production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to
domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.

Comercial Sterility

A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e.
those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth.
'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning
industry meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat
sufficient to render the processed product free from viable
microorganisms (including those of known public health significance),
capable of growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated
temperatures at which the food is likely to be held during
distribution and storage.

Controlled atmosphere packaging

A procedure whereby residual air in a food pack is replaced
by a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in order to minimise
deteriorative changes on storage. An example is the packaging of
peanuts in an atmosphere of nitrogen to inhibit rancidity.
Where food has been packed in this way in order to increase
shelf life, the Food Labelling Regulations 1996 require the
statement 'packaged in a protective atmosphere' to appear on the
label.

Convenience food

A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other
than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate)
before consumption.

Cooked

Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render
the food suitable for consumption.

Critical control point

Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may
result in an unacceptable risk.

Crude fibre

The structural component of the plant cell wall being the
residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a
food or food material. Crude fibre is determined for nutritional
declarations on animal feeding stuffs and also for defining brown
bread in the Bread and Flour Regulations 1984.

Dairy

When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to
milk and milk products. In the EU its use is legally governed by
Council Regulation 1898/87 on the Protection of Designations used in
the marketing of Milk and Milk Products, as supplemented by
Commission Decision 888/566/EEC. Help in interpreting some of these
provisions was given by a MAFF Guidance Note (November 1989). The
Council Regulation was subsequently implemented by the UK in the Milk
and Milk Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990.

Dairy-free (Non-dairy)

A description that may be applied to a food that is free from
milk products and also from milk derivatives such as lactose,
caseinate and whey powder.

Dehydrated (food)

Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of
the water has been removed under controlled conditions.

Designer food(s)

See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.

Disinfection

The application of effective chemical or physical agents or
processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the
number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene
practice.

Dietary fibre

In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components
derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural
polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to
foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose,
hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition
point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e.
starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result
of processing).

Currently, there is no universally accepted method for
determination of dietary fibre. For some years the UK Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has adopted the definition,
for the purposes of label declaration, that dietary fibre is
non-starch polysaccharides as determined by the Englyst method; but
in Guidelines issued in March 1994, MAFF indicated that analysts may
use any other methods which give similar results. The Englyst method
excludes resistant starch. Most EU countries and the USA use the AOAC
Prosky method. This method includes resistant starch and the value
for dietary fibre obtained is therefore invariably higher than that
by the Englyst method. It should be noted, however, that no
recognised analytical method fully corresponds to biological
performance.

Emulsion

A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a
stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an
oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and
usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.

Enriched

See "fortified foods"

Fast Food

This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a
type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered,
counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being
eaten without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on
scheduling based on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a
production system and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and
sufficient counter servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods
(e.g. burgers) have lent themselves more readily to this type of
operation, the term has come to be applied to them too.

Fermentation

The process of chemical change in animal or plant material,
catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in
brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food
spoilage.

Fermented (food)

Food material having been subjected to fermentation

Fibre

Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre" including in
European and UK nutrition labelling legislation

Flavour/flavoured

The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of
a food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste.
Alternatively, 'flavour', for which the legally correct term is
'flavouring', is defined in the Flavouring in Food Regulations 1992
as a material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food. Under
the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1996, if the declared flavour of
a product is derived wholly or mainly from the named food, the
product name is (for example) "Strawberry X". If it does not derive
wholly or mainly from the named food, the product name is
"Strawberry Flavour X".
The UK Food Standards Committee's 2nd Report on Food Labelling
suggested that consumers do not appreciate the difference between
'flavour', which the FSC equated with artificial flavouring and
'flavoured' which they equated with the use of the real food to
provide flavouring.
The UK Food Advisory Committee (FAC), in its 1990 Report on
Labelling, decided that the difference between 'flavour' and
'flavoured' was significant and that since consumers were said to
have difficulty distinguishing between the two, 'flavour' should be
banned and replaced by 'taste'.
The supposed confusion between the two words is a misconception.
Contrary to paragraph 64 of the FAC Report, the then Food Labelling
Regulations 1984 as amended, and the current UK Food Labelling
Regulations 1996. make no provision for the use of the term
'flavoured'. As indicated above those Regulations provide for
(e.g.) 'Strawberry X' or 'Strawberry Flavour X' but no intermediate
designation such as ' strawberry flavoured X'.
The only legal use of "flavoured" is in the Cocoa and Chocolate
Products Regulations 1976. In those Regulations, cocoa products and
non-filled chocolates may be described as 'Y flavoured chocolate',
as the case may be, if the flavour is derived wholly or mainly from Y.
The term 'flavour' serves a useful and well-established
purpose. The FAC suggestion to prohibit it and substitute 'taste'
(reiterated in September 1994) is scientifically inaccurate and,
if it were to be embodied in legislation, would create instead of
removing confusion.

Food

In the UK Food Safety Act 1990, 'food' is defined as including
(a) drink; (b) articles and substances of no nutritional value which
are used for human consumption; (c) chewing gum and other products of
a like nature and use; and (d) articles and substances used as
ingredients in the preparation of food or anything falling within
this subsection. It does not include (a) live animals or birds, or
live fish which are not used for human consumption while they are
alive; (b) fodder or feeding stuffs for animals, birds or fish; (c)
controlled drugs within the meaning of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971;
and (d) subject to certain exceptions, medicinal products in respect
of which product licences or marketing authorisations are in force.
This definition states what 'food' includes and excludes (similarly
to the latter part of the Codex definition) but it is deficient in
failing to define what food is, i.e. does not specify "intended for
human consumption".
The Codex Alimentarius defines 'food' as "any substance,
whether processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human
consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which
has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food,
but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used
as drugs".
The EU Commission, in its November 2000 Proposal for a
Regulation laying down the general principles and requirements of
food law, establishing the European Food Authority, and laying down
procedures in matters of food, proposed the following definition:
'Food' (or 'foodstuff') means any substance or product, whether
processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or
expected to be ingested by humans. It includes drink, chewing gum
and any substance intentionally incorporated into the food during
its manufacture, preparation or treatment. It includes water, without
prejudice to the requirements of Directives 80/778/EEC and 98/83/EC.
It shall not include:

(a) feed;
(b) live animals unless they are prepared, packaged and/or
served for human consumption;
(c) plants prior to harvesting;
(d) medicinal products within the meaning of Council Directive
65/65/EEC 17;
(e) cosmetics within the meaning of Council Directive 76/768/EEC
18 ;
(f) tobacco and tobacco products within the meaning of Council
Directive 89/622/EEC 19 ;
(g) narcotic or psychotropic substances within the meaning of
the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs,
1961 and the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic
Substances, 1971.

Food hygiene

All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions
involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and
preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that
would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or
decomposition of food.

Fortified (food)

Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched,
and fortified foods, as described here:

Restore

the addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the
level of those nutrients that were originally present, but have
been destroyed or lost in processing.

Enrich

The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were
already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.

Fortify

The addition to a food of significant quantities of a
nutrient that was not originally present in that food or was
present only in nutritionally insignificant amount.

Free from ....

For food to be described as 'free from X' (or by terms having a
similar import) the food, at the point of sale, must be either free
from
X when tested by a standard reference method of analysis or it must
contain no more than a specified maximum of X.

Free from added ....

If a food in its original state contains X, it may be described as
'free from added X' (or by terms having a similar import) only if no X
has been introduced, directly or indirectly, via any ingredient or
during production, manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
distribution or point of sale. MAFF Guidelines (1993) specify that 'no
added sugar' means that no sugars, or foods composed mainly of sugars,
should be added to a food or any of its ingredients; and that 'no added
salt' means that no salt or sodium compounds should be added to the
food
or to any of its ingredients.

It should be noted, however, that in the instance of a food which
strictly complies with the foregoing but itself has a high sugar
content
(for example date paste) the description 'no added sugar', though true,
could be held to be misleading (Section 3(2) of the Trade Descriptions
Act 1968).

Fresh

The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food
prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or microbiological
change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed foods e.g. fresh eggs,
fresh meat, showing that they are in their original state. It is also
used in apparently contradictory terms, e.g. fresh pasteurised cream to
distinguish it from more highly processed sterilised cream.

Functional

Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.

Functional food(s)

All foods are functional, and to term some (as distinct from
others) as 'functional' is illogical. The term is one of the
marketing-coined names (others are 'neutraceuticals' and 'designer
foods') to categorise foods which are considered or claimed to offer
specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be licensed
medicines (See Marketing terms, below).

Genetic modification

The process of making changes to the genes of an organism
(whether an animal or plant organism or a microorganism). Genetic
changes occur spontaneously in nature over a long period of time, but
they may be produced intentionally either by traditional methods of
selective breeding of animals and plants, or by modern methods of
removal or insertion of genes. The latter method involves four basic
steps;

1. the DNA of a cell of the donor organism is broken down and
the pieces separated;
2. the desired gene is selected;
3. that gene is copied many times; and
4. nth generation laboratory copies (not the donor's original
genes) are then inserted into the DNA of the receiver organism.

'Within-species' genetic modification is essentially similar to
traditional breeding methods (except that it is much speedier and
much less haphazard). Through 'trans-species' modification, results
are obtainable that could not be obtained by traditional breeding
methods. In relation to food, the potential scientific benefits of
genetic modification are:

* Improved agricultural performance (yields) with reduced use
of pesticides
* Ability to grow crops in inhospitable environments (e.g. via
increased ability of plants to grow in conditions of drought,
salinity and extremes of temperature
* Delayed ripening, permitting improvements in quality and
processing advantages.
* Altered sensory attributes of food (e.g. flavour, texture, etc.)
* Improved nutritional attributes e.g. combatting anti-nutritive
and allergenic factors, and increased Vitamin A content in rice.
* Improved processing characteristics leading to reduced waste
and lower food costs to the consumer.

Some forms of trans-species modification may give rise to ethical and
religious issues.
See also FAQ in section V (including within-species and
trans-species) Part 2, Q 7, 8, and 9

Genetically modified-See FAQ same sections as above

Genuine

'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or
source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be
synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it
may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla
olives, genuine Italian olive oil).

GMP

'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food control
operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently manufactured
to a specified quality appropriate to their intended use. It thus has
two complementary and interacting components; the manufacturing
operation itself and the control system and procedures. Reference
should
be made to the IFST publication 'Food and Drink - Good Manufacturing
Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management'. (3rd Edition, 1991).

HACCP

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive
system of food control. It involves

1. Hazard analysis - examining and analysing every stage of
a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards
(q.v., below);
2. determining the 'critical control points' (q.v., above) at
which action is required to control the identified hazards;
3. establishing the critical limits that must be met at each
critical control point;
4. establishing monitoring procedures;
5. establishing corrective procedures when a deviation is
identified by monitoring;
6. establishing verification procedures to demostrate that it
is working correctly.
7. Establishing record-keeping and documentation.

A few authoritative sources of information are:

* "HACCP Systems and Guidelines" , CODEX Alimentarius, 1997.
* Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines, (US) National Advisory Committee on
Microbiological Safety of Foods, 14 August 1997
http://www.fst.vt.edu/haccp97/
* Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of
Agriculture, Pathogen Reduction/HACCP & HACCP Implementation
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/haccp/imphaccp.htm
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency 's Food Safety Enhancement
Program Web page of links at
http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/english/ppc/haccp/haccp.html
* A Simple Guide to Understanding and Applying the Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point Concept. ILSI Europe, 1997.
http://www.ilsi.org/pubs/ilsihace.pdf

HAZOP

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic structured
approach to questioning the sequential stages of a proposed operation
in
order to optimise the efficiency and the management of risk. Thus, the
application of HAZOP to the design of a proposed food-related
operation,
should result in a system in which as many critical control points as
possible have been eliminated, making the subsequent application of
HACCP during subsequent operations much easier to carry out.

Hazard

Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or
situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse
consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse
consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.

Health food

This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has
never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective
justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods not
so described. So-called health foods fall into four main categories,
namely

1) products in respect of which there is adequate scientific
substantiation for the specific permissible nutrition and/or health
claims made, and which are labelled in accordance with relevant
legislation;

2) those in respect of which there is 'folklore' and some
scientific evidence for the claims, but falling short of
substantiation;

3) those making claims for which there is little or no scientific
evidence;

4) other products that are frequently sold in health food shops
e.g. 'wholefoods' (q.v.).

It should be noted that some products in categories 2 and 3 have
given rise to concerns about their safety, which, in certain cases,
have
led to prohibition.

Hermetically sealed container

Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is sealed
so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may be packed
in non-metallic containers that are not completely air-tight. In the
latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container' has been defined as
one that is designed and intended to be secure against entry of
microorganisms.

High in .....

Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified minimum, or a legally-specified percentage increase
compared with a product not making a "high in" claim for the parameters
involved."

Higher in (increased) .....

Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified percentage increase compared with a product not
making
such a claim, for the parameter involved.

Home made

This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has
been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or premises
not associated with large scale manufacture.

Improved

Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction with
'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including minor
cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes to make
the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter case that
most properly justifies the use of the term.

Instant

This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders
or
mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds
(e.g.
instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such speedy
action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been misused by
applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster than some others
but still take a few minutes rather than a few seconds. For the latter,
a term such as 'rapid' would be more appropriate.

Irradiated

Having been subjected to ionising radiation.

Isotonic

A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic
properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-
osmoles per kg. However, the EU Scientific Committee for Food's
February 2001 Report on Sports Drinks
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out64_en.pdf includes

"It has become common to refer to carbohydrate-electrolyte
sports drinks as isotonic drinks, as though the tonicity was
their most important characteristic. The osmolality of
ingested fluids is important as this can influence both the
rates of gastric emptying and of intestinal water flux: both
of these processes together will determine the effectiveness
of rehydration fluids at delivering water for rehydration. An
increasing osmolality of the gastric contents will tend to
delay emptying, and increasing the carbohydrate or electrolyte
content of sports drinks will generally result in an increased
osmolality. The composition of the drinks and the nature of
the solutes is, however, of greater importance than the
osmolality itself??."

and concludes:

"Although most of the popular sports drinks are formulated to
have as close to that of body fluids [102] and are promoted as
isotonic drinks, there is good evidence that hypotonic solutions
are more effective when rapid rehydration is desired. Although
it is argued that a higher osmolality is inevitable when
adequate amounts of carbohydrate are to be included in sports
drinks, the optimum amount of carbohydrate necessary to improve
exercise performance has not been clearly established."

Junk Food

This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label
which has, for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast
food and all snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high
in fat and/or sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients.
However, there is no evidence that such foods are other than
acceptable as part of a balanced diet

Light/Lite

These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat
version

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