[continued from previous message]
remote identification is
where the person operating the UAS has been authorized by the
Administrator to operate the
UAS for the purpose of aeronautical research or to show compliance
with regulations. In this
context, the FAA would consider aeronautical research to be limited to
the research and testing
of the unmanned aircraft, the control systems, equipment that is part
of the unmanned aircraft
(such as sensors), and flight profiles, or development of specific
functions and capabilities for the
UAS. Under this provision, producers and other persons authorized by
the Administrator, would
100
have the ability to operate UAS prototypes without remote
identification exclusively for
researching and testing the UAS design, equipment, or capabilities.
This provision does not
extend to any other type of research using a UAS.
Additionally, a person authorized by the Administrator would be
permitted to conduct
flight tests and other operations to show compliance with an
FAA-accepted means of compliance
for remote identification, or airworthiness regulations, including but
not limited to flights to
show compliance for issuance of type certificates and supplemental
type certificates, flights to
substantiate major design changes, and flights to show compliance with
the function and
reliability requirements of the regulations.
B. Prohibition from Using ADS-B to Satisfy Remote Identification
Requirements
The FAA proposes to prohibit the use of ADS-B Out to meet remote
identification
requirements in this rule. The FAA determined that both the ADS-B
message elements and the
infrastructure required to receive the ADS-B message elements are
incompatible with the current
need for remote identification at lower altitudes. ADS-B does not
provide information regarding
the location of a UAS control station. Thus, it would not advance the
FAA’s need to associate a
control station with the actual unmanned aircraft it controls.
Further, because ADS-B receivers
do not provide sufficient low altitude coverage, ADS-B Out would not
align well with the FAA’s
vision for the development of UTM. Finally, the FAA determined that
the use of ADS-B Out by
UAS would generate undue signal saturation and would create an overall
safety hazard for
manned aircraft due to the potentially high numbers of UAS which may
be operating in the
airspace at any given time. For these reasons, the FAA is proposing in
§ 89.125 to prohibit ADSB Out equipment from being used to comply with
the remote identification requirements of
part 89.
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C. Internet Availability and Transmission to a Remote ID USS
The FAA is proposing to require standard remote identification UAS and
limited remote
identification UAS to connect automatically to the internet, when
available, and transmit remote
identification message elements through that internet connection to a
Remote ID USS. The FAA
is also proposing a related performance requirement for standard
remote identification UAS and
limited remote identification UAS to continuously monitor the
connectivity to the internet and
the transmission of remote identification message elements to a Remote
ID USS and notify the
person manipulating the flight controls of the UAS if that connection
is lost or the UAS is no
longer transmitting to the Remote ID USS. Because of this proposed
performance requirement
for the UAS, the person manipulating the flight controls of the UAS
would be aware at all times
of whether the UAS was connected to the internet and transmitting to a
Remote ID USS.
The FAA believes an internet-based solution is appropriate, when the
internet is
available, because the internet is the largest, most multifaceted, and prevalent platform for data
transmission. Under the proposed rule, the internet would be
considered available if cellular or
other forms of wireless internet connectivity such as Wi-Fi are
available in an operational area
with sufficient signal strength to maintain a connection between the
UAS and the internet. UAS
with remote identification would automatically connect to the internet
when it is available,
similar to how wireless devices, such as smart phones, connect
automatically to the internet
when there is sufficient signal strength and coverage.
If the internet is available but the operator’s Remote ID USS is not
working, the operator
would be required to either connect to another Remote ID USS or the
UAS would be restricted
from taking off. In the unlikely event that all Remote ID USS become unavailable at the same
time but the internet remains available, no standard or limited remote identification UAS would
102
be able to take off. The FAA assumes this situation would be extremely unlikely. The FAA seeks
public comment on whether there are ways to address this extremely
unlikely situation within the
framework of the rule as proposed.
After connecting to the internet, a standard remote identification UAS
or limited remote
identification UAS must transmit the remote identification message
elements to a Remote ID
USS. The FAA anticipates that there will be some Remote ID USS
available to the general
public and that others will be private. Under the proposed rule, a
Remote ID USS would be
considered available as long as that Remote ID USS provides remote identification services to
the general public at the time the standard remote identification UAS
or limited remote
identification UAS is being operated. A private or restricted access
Remote ID USS would be
considered available only to UAS operators who receive remote
identification services from that
Remote ID USS. For example, if Company ABC sets up a private Remote ID
USS to provide
remote identification services exclusively to its fleet of UAS, then
the private Remote ID USS
would only be available to the UAS operators of Company ABC. In
comparison, if Company
XYZ sets up a Remote ID USS that can be accessed by the general public
for remote
identification services, then Company XYZ’s Remote ID USS would be
considered available to
all operators of UAS flying in the airspace of the United States,
irrespective of whether that
access requires a monetary cost. The FAA is not proposing to establish
specific requirements
regarding Remote ID USS business models, (e.g., charging fees,
requiring user agreements, and
requiring information from Remote ID USS users). The FAA believes that operators will choose
a Remote ID USS that best meets their operational needs. The FAA
further discusses some of its
assumptions related to Remote ID USS business models in the
accompanying Regulatory Impact
Analysis, where it assumes (while acknowledging significant
uncertainty) the average publicly
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available Remote ID USS will charge $2.50 as a monthly subscription
($30 annually) cost to
users of its service.
D. In-flight Loss of Connectivity with a Remote ID USS or Loss of
Functionality
The FAA foresees situations where the person manipulating the flight
controls of a UAS
would need to receive an indication that the connection to a Remote ID
USS has been lost midflight. Under this proposal, standard remote identification UAS would be produced with the
capability to both connect to the internet and, through that
connection, transmit to a Remote ID
USS and to broadcast. The broadcast capability provides continuous
remote identification
information and continues to provide remote identification when
connectivity to the internet is
lost or the unmanned aircraft is no longer transmitting to a Remote ID
USS. If the connection to
the internet or to a Remote ID USS is lost after takeoff, the person manipulating the flight
controls would be allowed to continue operating the UAS as long as it
is still broadcasting the
remote identification message elements. If, however, a standard remote identification UAS loses
its ability to broadcast the message elements, the person manipulating
the flight controls of the
UAS would be required to land the unmanned aircraft as soon as
practicable. This is necessary
because a loss of the broadcast capability is an indication of a
remote identification equipment
failure.
Because limited remote identification UAS cannot broadcast remote identification
message elements, if the UAS loses connection to the internet or to a
Remote ID USS, then the
person manipulating the flight controls would have to land the
unmanned aircraft as soon as
practicable. The FAA considers this to be the safest course of action
given that these operations
would be conducted within visual line of sight and no more than 400
feet from the person
manipulating the flight controls of the UAS.
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Should the UAS remote identification equipment experience a loss of functionality or
malfunction in flight, the FAA proposes in §§ 89.110(b) and 89.115(b)
to require the person
manipulating the flight controls of the UAS to land as soon as
practicable. The FAA does not
define the phrase “land as soon as practicable” and expects that the
person manipulating the
flight controls of the UAS will take steps to land in a safe manner.
For instance, if the aircraft is
still within visual line of sight, the safest option may be to keep
the aircraft within sight to avoid
other aircraft and return to the departure point. For a standard
remote identification UAS
operating BVLOS, the safest way to land may be to continue to the
intended destination.
E. Valid Declaration of Compliance
The FAA is proposing to require persons responsible for the production
of UAS with
remote identification to declare that the UAS meet the minimum
performance requirements of
the proposed rule using an FAA-accepted means of compliance by
submitting a declaration of
compliance for acceptance by the FAA. A declaration of compliance is a
document submitted to
the FAA by the person responsible for the production of UAS with
remote identification. It
includes information required by the FAA to determine whether the
person and the UAS comply
with the remote identification requirements of the rule. The FAA is
proposing in §§ 89.110(c)(1)
and 89.115(c)(1) to prohibit a person from operating a UAS with remote identification unless its
serial number is identified on an FAA-accepted declaration of
compliance. The FAA would
provide a list of all FAA-accepted declarations of compliance on its
website to notify the public
when its acceptance of a declaration of compliance is valid. The
website would also identify
declarations of compliance that have been rescinded. Section XIII.E.3
of this preamble discusses
the rescission of a declaration of compliance.
105
F. Foreign Registered Civil Unmanned Aircraft Operated in the United
States
In § 89.101(b), the FAA is proposing to apply the operational
requirements of part 89 to
persons operating foreign civil unmanned aircraft in the United
States. These persons would have
to comply with the remote identification requirements in § 89.105,
which means that these
persons would only be able to operate foreign civil unmanned aircraft
in the United States that
qualify as standard remote identification UAS, limited remote
identification UAS, or that have
no remote identification equipment but are operated within an
FAA-recognized identification
area.
The FAA must be able to correlate the remote identification message
elements
transmitted or broadcast by foreign civil unmanned aircraft operated
in the United States against
information that helps FAA and law enforcement identify a person
responsible for the foreign
civil unmanned aircraft. Where unmanned aircraft are registered in a
foreign jurisdiction, the
FAA may not have access to information regarding the unmanned aircraft
or its registered
owner. Thus, the FAA is proposing in § 89.130(a) to allow a person to
operate foreign-registered
civil unmanned aircraft in the United States only if the person
submits a notice of identification
to the Administrator. The notice would include the following
information to allow the FAA to
associate an unmanned aircraft to a responsible person:
(1) The name of the operator and, for an operator other than an
individual, the name of
the authorized representative providing the notice.
(2) The physical address of the operator and, for an operator other
than an individual, the
physical address for the authorized representative. If the operator or authorized representative
does not receive mail at a physical address, a mailing address must
also be provided.
106
(3) The physical address of the operator in the United States (e.g.,
hotel name and
address).
(4) One or more telephone number(s) where the operator can be reached
while in the
United States.
(5) The email address of the operator or, for an operator other than
an individual, the
email address of the authorized representative.
(6) The aircraft manufacturer and model name.
(7) The serial number of the aircraft.
(8) The country of registration of the aircraft.
(9) The registration number of the aircraft.
Once a person submits a notice of identification, the FAA would issue
a confirmation of
identification. Under § 89.130(c), a person operating a
foreign-registered unmanned aircraft in
the United States would have to maintain the confirmation of
identification at the UAS’ control
station and would have to produce it when requested by the FAA or a
law enforcement officer.
As specified in proposed § 89.130(b)(2), the filing of the notice of identification and the
issuance of a confirmation of identification would not have the effect
of U.S. aircraft registration.
The issuance of a confirmation of identification would not exempt any
person from
having to obtain the appropriate safety authority issued by the FAA or
economic authority issued
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by the Department of Transportation62 prior to conducting unmanned
aircraft operations in the
airspace of the United States, if required for their particular
operations.
Lastly, under proposed § 89.130(d), the holder of a confirmation of identification would
have to ensure that the information provided under proposed §
89.130(a) remains accurate and is
current prior to operating a foreign registered civil unmanned
aircraft system in the United
States.
G. Example Operating Scenarios
The FAA is providing these notional scenarios to provide examples of
how the FAA
envisions the proposed rule would apply to certain common situations.
1. Subscribing to a USS
Kim decides to give her daughter Emily a UAS for her birthday. Emily,
excited to finally
have her own UAS, eagerly unwraps the package so she can begin taking
aerial selfies. Under
FAA rules, Emily’s drone must be registered and therefore comes with
remote identification.
The UAS will not take off unless it is connected to a Remote ID USS.
In order to comply with
the remote identification requirement, Kim researches FAA-qualified
Remote ID USS on the
FAA’s website and decides to subscribe to Alpha USS, Inc. Emily’s UAS
was designed to pair
with her smartphone and connect to the Remote ID USS through her
smartphone’s internet
connection. After Emily’s UAS connects to Alpha USS, she is able to
start using her drone to
take selfies.
62
https://www.faa.gov/uas/resources/foreign_operators/
108
2. Operating a Standard Remote Identification UAS
Patty has a photography business and has decided to purchase a UAS to
take aerial
photos for weddings and other events. She researched different types
of UAS and their
capabilities and determined that she needs a UAS that can operate more
than 400 feet from its
control station. Patty decides to buy a standard remote identification
UAS. Because the UAS has
standard remote identification, it is designed to: (1) connect to the
internet and transmit the
remote identification message elements through that internet
connection to a Remote ID USS;
and (2) broadcast the same message elements directly from the unmanned aircraft.
Patty sees that the UAS she wants to buy has a label that says it is a
standard remote
identification UAS. Regardless, Patty checked the FAA’s website to
confirm that the UAS she is
buying has a valid FAA-accepted declaration of compliance. Because the
UAS was listed on the
FAA website, the UAS meets the requirements of part 89. Patty intends
to operate her UAS for
business purposes, so the operations are subject to the operating
rules in 14 CFR part 107, which
require her to register the unmanned aircraft with the FAA. Patty goes
online to the
FAADroneZone63 website, applies for, and is issued a Certificate of
Aircraft Registration under
part 48. As part of the application process, Patty submits her
unmanned aircraft’s serial number.
Because Patty is required to register her unmanned aircraft under part
48, she is subject to the
remote identification operating requirements in part 89.
Patty then subscribes online to Alpha, Inc., an FAA-qualified Remote
ID USS. Her UAS
is designed to connect to the internet by automatically pairing with
her personal smart phone
when the phone is running an application provided by Alpha USS. Each
time Patty uses her
63
https://faadronezone.faa.gov
109
UAS, it automatically transmits the standard remote identification
UAS’ remote identification
message elements through that internet connection to Alpha USS. Patty
chooses to use her
unmanned aircraft’s serial number for the UAS Identification message
element, but in the future,
she may instead choose to use a session ID assigned by Alpha USS.
Sometimes, Patty’s UAS loses its internet connection while she is
operating in rural
areas; she can continue the operation as long as the unmanned aircraft
is still broadcasting the
remote identification message elements. During one operation, Patty’s
UAS indicated that, due
to a malfunction, the unmanned aircraft was no longer broadcasting the
message elements, at
which point she landed the unmanned aircraft as soon as practicable.
During a different operation, Patty’s UAS attempts to connect to Alpha
USS at the time
of takeoff, but Alpha’s remote identification service is unavailable
because Alpha’s server is
down. Patty’s UAS can still connect to the internet through her smart
phone and she discovers
that an alternate FAA-qualified Remote ID USS, Bravo, Inc., is
available. Patty’s UAS connects
to Bravo, Inc. and is able to fly her UAS. Patty’s subscription with
Alpha USS provides for a
“roaming” feature that allows her to connect to other available USS
free of charge so she can
have uninterrupted service. If her subscription did not provide this
roaming feature, Patty would
have had to pay any associated fees directly to Bravo. This is because
if any Remote ID USS is
available, even if it is not the one she contracted with, her UAS is
designed to connect to it
through the internet. As long as she can connect to the Internet, it
is incumbent on Patty to
connect to a USS. Only when the UAS cannot connect to the internet
would the unmanned
aircraft be able to take off while only broadcasting.
On another occasion, Patty is unable to connect to Alpha, Inc. at the
time of takeoff due
to a disruption in Alpha’s service, but Bravo is also experiencing
problems. There are no other
110
publicly available Remote ID USS. Because Patty’s UAS is designed not
to take off when it has
access to the internet but is not connected to a Remote ID USS, her
unmanned aircraft would not
take off. Her service would be interrupted until Alpha, Bravo, or
another publicly available USS
became available.64
3. Operating a Limited Remote Identification UAS
Charlie purchases a used UAS that looks like a spaceship. The UAS
weighs more than
0.55 pounds and he intends to operate it outside his house for
recreational purposes, such as
filming his daughter’s soccer games and entertaining his sons who love
science fiction movies.
The person who sold Charlie the UAS assures him it is remote
identification compliant. Because
the company responsible for production of the UAS was required to
label the unmanned aircraft
to indicate that it is remote identification compliant, Charlie is
able to confirm the seller’s
assurance by reading the label affixed to the aircraft. Charlie’s UAS
is a “limited remote
identification UAS,” which means it is designed and produced to
operate no more than 400 feet
from its control station and cannot broadcast remote identification
message elements. Under part
89, he is only allowed to operate his limited remote identification
unmanned aircraft within
visual line of sight. Prior to his purchase, Charlie visits the FAA’s
website and confirms that his
UAS has an FAA-accepted declaration of compliance. After the previous
UAS owner deregisters the unmanned aircraft as required by §
48.105(b)(2), Charlie goes online to the
FAADroneZone website, applies for, and is issued a Certificate of
Aircraft Registration under
64 Practically speaking, the FAA anticipates that there will be many
more than two publicly available USS and this
scenario under which all USS would be simultaneously unavailable
should not occur except in the rarest of
circumstances.
111
part 48. During the registration process, he provides the UAS
manufacturer name, the model
name, and the aircraft’s manufacturer-issued serial number.
Because Charlie is required to register his unmanned aircraft, he is
also subject to the
remote identification operating rules in part 89. This means that
before Charlie can start to use
the UAS, he must subscribe to a USS. He subscribes to Bravo, Inc., an FAA-qualified Remote
ID USS and opts to use the unmanned aircraft’s serial number for the
UAS Identification
message element. Charlie’s UAS is designed to pair with his smartphone
to transmit the remote
identification message elements through an internet connection to a
USS. Because Charlie’s
UAS cannot broadcast remote identification message elements, it does
not function unless his
smartphone is connected to the internet and transmitting through that
internet connection to
Bravo USS. If Charlie’s UAS loses its connection to either the
internet or is unable to transmit to
Bravo USS in the middle of an operation, he would be required to land
the aircraft as soon as
practicable. Charlie may take off again as soon as his UAS
reestablishes its connection to the
internet and can transmit to a Remote ID USS.
4. Operating a UAS without Remote Identification
Linus wants to fly a UAS without remote identification that he
assembled at home from
parts he bought at a hobby shop a few years ago. He uses his unmanned
aircraft exclusively as a
model aircraft. Since he registered his unmanned aircraft in 2018,
before the effective date of the
remote identification rule, he was not required to provide any
specific information about the
aircraft, such as the serial number. Linus’s aircraft registration
expires in 2021, and he will renew
the registration of his unmanned aircraft on the FAADroneZone website.
At that time, he would
have to submit the unmanned aircraft’s manufacturer and model name as
part of the registration
112
process. Because Linus built his own UAS, he plans to use his own name
as the manufacturer
and use a model number of his choosing.
Because his UAS does not have any remote identification capabilities,
Linus knows he
may only operate it within an FAA-recognized identification area.
Linus is a member of the
Arizona Amateur Modelers (AAM) organization, which has an
FAA-recognized identification
area near his home. He found information about AAM’s FAA-recognized identification area at
the FAA website and has agreed to AAM’s terms and conditions for
operating within the FAArecognized identification area. While
operating there, Linus makes sure that both he and the
unmanned aircraft physically stay within the boundaries of the
FAA-recognized identification
area. Linus operates the unmanned aircraft within visual line of sight
and in accordance with any
applicable operational rules and site-specific safety guidelines.
5. Flying in an FAA-recognized Identification Area
Scenario 1: Linus owns another UAS which is a standard remote
identification UAS and
wants to operate it at AAM’s FAA-recognized identification area. Since
his second UAS is a
standard remote identification UAS, even when operating within the
boundaries of the FAArecognized identification area, he is still
required to ensure that the standard remote identification
UAS transmits the applicable remote identification message elements
through an internet
connection to a Remote ID USS and broadcasts directly from the
unmanned aircraft. The remote
identification requirements for Linus are no different inside or
outside of the FAA-recognized
identification area when he is operating a UAS with remote
identification.
Scenario 2: Linus owns a third UAS – this one a limited remote
identification UAS –
which was given to him as a birthday present. He decided he would try
out his new limited
113
remote identification UAS after he finished posting on his blog. While
working on his computer,
there was a massive power outage that took out all communications in
the city. Since Linus lost
connection to the internet in both his computer and mobile phone, he
decided he would go fly his
limited remote identification UAS at the nearby FAA-recognized
identification area until the
internet came back and he could finish working on his blog. When Linus
arrived at the FAArecognized identification area, he took out the
limited remote identification UAS from its box,
turned it on, and attempted to fly. The limited remote identification
UAS did not lift off. Linus
realized that he was going to have to go back home to get his standard
remote identification UAS
or his UAS with no remote identification capabilities. Even though he
was at an FAA-recognized
identification area, he would not be able to fly his limited remote identification UAS because the
limited remote identification UAS cannot broadcast remote
identification message elements and
was produced to meet requirements that prevent it from taking off when
it cannot connect to the
internet and transmit to a Remote ID USS. Linus will be able to
operate his limited remote
identification UAS at the FAA-recognized identification area or
elsewhere when the connection
to the internet is reestablished and his limited remote identification
UAS is able to transmit to a
Remote ID USS.
Scenario 3: Sam is cleaning out his closet and finds a UAS that he
bought a number of
years ago. The UAS was purchased before the remote identification rule
went into effect and the
unmanned aircraft weighs 1 pound. He remembers registering the
unmanned aircraft, but knows
it does not have remote identification. Sam is aware that some older
UAS manufactured without
remote identification could receive a software update that makes them
remote identification
compliant. He checks the UAS manufacturer’s website, but unfortunately
his model of UAS is
114
not eligible for an update. Because Sam’s unmanned aircraft is
required to be registered and does
not have remote identification, Sam can only operate it at an
FAA-recognized identification area.
XI. Law Enforcement Access to Remote Identification and Registration Information
In addition to aiding the FAA in its civil enforcement of FAA
regulations, the FAA
anticipates that with the implementation of the proposed remote
identification requirements, law
enforcement and national security agencies would find the remote
identification information
useful for criminal enforcement, public safety, and security purposes.
There are over 18,000 law
enforcement and security agencies across the United States, many of
which would seek access to
remote identification information to respond to emerging threats or as
part of an investigation.
The FAA envisions it would facilitate near real-time access to the
remote identification
message elements (paired with certain registration data, when
necessary) for accredited and
verified law enforcement and Federal security partners. The
information could be used to
identify and possibly contact the person manipulating the flight
controls of a UAS in response to
potentially unsafe or nefarious UAS activities. Potential scenarios
include local law enforcement
or Federal agencies seeking information in response to nuisance calls
from private citizens or
large crowd event managers; UAS at emergency scenes (e.g., fires,
motor vehicle accident
scenes); critical infrastructure protection; UAS around airports; and
manned aircraft encounters
with UAS. Law enforcement agencies would be able to access remote identification information
in near real-time and also access remote identification information
maintained by Remote ID
USS.
Remote identification would assist in providing law enforcement and
security agencies
with important information about the UAS in real time, including the
location of the control
115
station and therefore the location of the person manipulating the
flight controls of the UAS. This
information would better enable law enforcement to immediately find
the location of the person
manipulating the flight controls of a UAS and help with preliminary
threat discrimination. In
addition, when correlated with registration information, remote
identification of UAS also would
enable law enforcement officers to determine some information about
who the UAS’ owner is
before engaging the person manipulating the flight controls of a UAS
directly. Once located, a
law enforcement officer can speak with the person manipulating the
flight controls of a UAS to
gain potential insight into his or her intentions and allow the
officer to either educate the person
manipulating the flight controls of a UAS or begin an investigation.
Although remote
identification of UAS may not deter nefarious actors, it would allow
the swift interdiction of the
clueless and careless persons manipulating the flight controls of UAS
and shift law enforcement
and security partners’ UAS protection efforts to the truly nefarious
actors. This information
would also aid in any subsequent criminal or civil enforcement action.
Remote identification information, when correlated with UAS registry information,
would inform law enforcement officers about two essential factors: who registered the UAS, and
where the person manipulating the flight controls of a UAS is
currently located. This is
particularly relevant to a law enforcement officer’s decision on
whether use of force would be
appropriate. Law enforcement officials have made clear that it can be
very difficult to make a
decision about the potential intent of a person manipulating the
flight controls of a UAS with the
limited information available from visually observing a UAS. Remote identification information
would enable better threat discrimination, an immediate and
appropriate law enforcement
response, and a more effective follow-on investigation.
116
As part of this NPRM, the FAA has conducted a Privacy Impact
Assessment. The PIA
found the NPRM requirements that affect privacy include, among others,
the registration of the
UAS with the FAA, the transmission of data from the UAS to Remote ID
USS, and the broadcast
of data from standard remote identification UAS to any person capable
of receiving broadcasts.
As noted elsewhere in this NPRM, the FAA anticipates that the message
elements related to any
standard remote identification UAS or limited remote identification
UAS are publicly available
information and may be accessed by any person able to receive a
broadcast or who has access to
a Remote ID USS. Currently, the FAA restricts access to information
contained in its small
unmanned aircraft registration system; the FAA is not proposing to
change the restrictions
regarding that information.
The PIA discusses the information proposed to be collected and the
uses of that
information. The PIA points to several mitigation strategies
including: limiting collection to only
relevant and necessary personally identifiable information (PII),
limiting the use of PII to the
specific purpose for which it was collected, using security measures
to protect PII collected,
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